Unprecedented Diversity of Unique CRISPR-Cas-Related Systems and Cas1 Homologs in Asgard Archaea

Differential processing of CRISPR RNA by LinCas5c and LinCas6 of Leptospira

Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni's genome harbors two CRISPR-Cas systems belonging to subtypes I-B and I-C. However, in L. interrogans, the subtype I-C locus lacks an array component essential for assembling an interference complex. Thus, the reason for sustaining the expense of a cluster of cas genes (I-C) is obscure. Type I-C (previously Dvulg) is the only CRISPR subtype that engages Cas5c, a Cas5 variant, to process precursor CRISPR-RNA (pre-crRNA). In this study, thus, the recombinant Cas5c (rLinCas5c) of L.interrogans and its mutant variants were cloned, expressed, and purified. The purified rLinCas5c is illustrated as metal-independent, sequence, and size-specific cleavage on repeat RNA and pre-crRNA of subtype I-B or orphan CRISPR array. However, the Cas6-bound mature crRNA of subtype I-B fends off from the rLinCas5c activity. In addition, rLinCas5c holds metal and size-dependent DNase activity. The bioinformatics analysis of LinCas5c inferred that it belongs to the subgroup Cas5c-B. Substitution of Phe141 with a more conserved His residue and deletion of unique (β1'-β2') insertions usher a gain of rLinCas5c activity over nucleic acid. Overall, our results uncover the functional diversity of Cas5c ribonucleases and infer an incognito auxiliary role in the absence of a cognate CRISPR array.

Diversity, evolution, and classification of the RNA-guided nucleases TnpB and Cas12

The TnpB proteins are transposon-associated RNA-guided nucleases that are among the most abundant proteins encoded in bacterial and archaeal genomes, but whose functions in the transposon life cycle remain unknown. TnpB appears to be the evolutionary ancestor of Cas12, the effector nuclease of type V CRISPR-Cas systems. We performed a comprehensive census of TnpBs in archaeal and bacterial genomes and constructed a phylogenetic tree on which we mapped various features of these proteins. In multiple branches of the tree, the catalytic site of the TnpB nuclease is rearranged, demonstrating structural and probably biochemical malleability of this enzyme. We identified numerous cases of apparent recruitment of TnpB for other functions of which the most common is the evolution of type V CRISPR-Cas effectors on about 50 independent occasions. In many other cases of more radical exaptation, the catalytic site of the TnpB nuclease is apparently inactivated, suggesting a regulatory function, whereas in others, the activity appears to be retained, indicating that the recruited TnpB functions as a nuclease, for example, as a toxin. These findings demonstrate remarkable evolutionary malleability of the TnpB scaffold and provide extensive opportunities for further exploration of RNA-guided biological systems as well as multiple applications.

Functional PAM sequence for DNA interference by CRISPR-Cas I-B system of Leptospira interrogans and the role of LinCas11b encoded within lincas8b

Pathogenic species of Leptospira are recalcitrant for genetic manipulation using conventional tools, and therefore there is a need to explore techniques of higher efficiency. Application of endogenous CRISPR-Cas tool is emerging and efficient; nevertheless, it is limited by a poor understanding of interference machinery in the bacterial genome and its associated protospacer adjacent motif (PAM). In this study, interference machinery of CRISPR-Cas subtype I-B (Lin_I-B) from L. interrogans was experimentally validated in E. coli using the various identified PAM (TGA, ATG, ATA). The overexpression of the Lin_I-B interference machinery in E. coli demonstrated that LinCas5, LinCas6, LinCas7, and LinCas8b can self-assemble on cognate CRISPR RNA to form an interference complex (LinCascade). Moreover, a robust interference of target plasmids containing a protospacer with a PAM suggested a functional LinCascade. We also recognized a small open reading frame within lincas8b that independently co-translates LinCas11b. A mutant variant of LinCascade^-Cas11b that lacks LinCas11b co-expression erred to mount target plasmid interference. At the same time, LinCas11b complementation in LinCascade^-Cas11b rescued target plasmid interference. Thus, the present study establishes Leptospira subtype I-B interference machinery to be functional and, soon, may pave the way for scientists to harness it as a programmable endogenous genetic manipulation tool.

Casposons - silent heroes of the CRISPR-Cas systems evolutionary history

Many archaeal and bacterial organisms possess an adaptive immunity system known as CRISPR-Cas. Its role is to recognize and degrade foreign DNA showing high similarity to repeats within the CRISPR array. In recent years computational techniques have been used to identify cas1 genes that are not associated with CRISPR systems, named cas1-solo. Often, cas1-solo genes are present in a conserved neighborhood of PolB-like polymerase genes, which is a characteristic feature of self-synthesizing, eukaryotic transposons of the Polinton class. Nearly all cas1-polB genomic islands are flanked by terminal inverted repeats and direct repeats which correspond to target site duplications. Considering the patchy taxonomic distribution of the identified islands in archaeal and bacterial genomes, they were characterized as a new superfamily of mobile genetic elements and called casposons. Here, we review recent experiments on casposons' mobility and discuss their discovery, classification, and evolutionary relationship with the CRISPR-Cas systems.

Molecular Details of DNA Integration by CRISPR-Associated Proteins During Adaptation in Bacteria and Archaea

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins constitute an adaptive immune system in bacteria and archaea, where immunological memory is retained in the CRISPR locus as short pieces of the intruding nucleic acid, termed spacers. The adaptation to new infections occurs through the integration of a new spacer into the CRISPR array. For immune protection, spacers are transcribed into CRISPR RNAs (crRNA) that are used to guide the effector nuclease of the system in sequence-dependent target cleavage. Spacers originate as a prespacer from either DNA or RNA depending on the CRISPR-Cas system being observed, and the nearly universal Cas proteins, Cas1 and Cas2, insert the prespacer into the CRISPR locus during adaptation in all systems that contain them. The mechanism of site-specific prespacer integration varies across CRISPR classes and types, and distinct differences can even be found within the same subtype. In this review, the current knowledge on the mechanisms of prespacer integration in type II-A CRISPR-Cas systems will be described. Comparisons of the currently characterized type II-A systems show that distinct mechanisms exist within different members of this subtype and are correlated to sequence-specific interactions of Cas proteins and the DNA elements present in the CRISPR array. These observations indicate that nature has fine-tuned the mechanistic details while performing the basic step of DNA integration by Cas proteins, which offers unique advantages to develop Cas1-Cas2-based biotechnology.

Global phylogenomic novelty of the Cas1 gene from hot spring microbial communities

The Cas1 protein is essential for the functioning of CRISPR-Cas adaptive systems. However, despite the high prevalence of CRISPR-Cas systems in thermophilic microorganisms, few studies have investigated the occurrence and diversity of Cas1 across hot spring microbial communities. Phylogenomic analysis of 2,150 Cas1 sequences recovered from 48 metagenomes representing hot springs (42–80°C, pH 6–9) from three continents, revealed similar ecological diversity of Cas1 and 16S rRNA associated with geographic location. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis of the Cas1 sequences exposed a broad taxonomic distribution in thermophilic bacteria, with new clades of Cas1 homologs branching at the root of the tree or at the root of known clades harboring reference Cas1 types. Additionally, a new family of casposases was identified from hot springs, which further completes the evolutionary landscape of the Cas1 superfamily. This ecological study contributes new Cas1 sequences from known and novel locations worldwide, mainly focusing on under-sampled hot spring microbial mat taxa. Results herein show that circumneutral hot springs are environments harboring high diversity and novelty related to adaptive immunity systems.

"Genetic scissors" CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing cutting-edge biocarrier technology for bone and cartilage repair

CRISPR/Cas9 is a revolutionary genome editing technology with the tremendous advantages such as precisely targeting/shearing ability, low cost and convenient operation, becoming an efficient and indispensable tool in biological research. As a disruptive technique, CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing has a great potential to realize a future breakthrough in the clinical bone and cartilage repairing as well. This review highlights the research status of CRISPR/Cas9 system in bone and cartilage repair, illustrates its mechanism for promoting osteogenesis and chondrogenesis, and explores the development tendency of CRISPR/Cas9 in bone and cartilage repair to overcome the current limitations.

Transcriptional analysis of CRISPR I-B arrays of Leptospira interrogans serovar Lai and its processing by Cas6

In the genome of various Leptospira interrogans serovars, the subtype I-B locus of CRISPR-Cas possesses either one or multiple CRISPR arrays. In silico database (CRISPRCasdb) for predicting CRISPR-Cas reveals seven CRISPR arrays in L. interrogans serovar Lai positioned between the two independent cas-operons. Here, we present the redefined repeat-spacer boundaries of the CRISPR subtype I-B locus of serovar Lai. Such refinement of boundaries of arrays in serovar Lai was done after comparison with the characterized array of another serovar Copenhageni and the manual analysis of CRISPR flanking sequences. Using the reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR), we account that the seven CRISPR are transcriptionally active in serovar Lai. Our RT-PCR and quantitative real-time PCR analysis of transcripts in serovar Lai indicated that seven CRISPR of subtype I-B transcribe together as a single precursor unit. Moreover, the cleavage of the two miniature pre-crRNA of the subtype I-B by Cas6 demonstrates the biogenesis of the expected size of mature crRNA essential for the guided interference of foreign DNA. This study features insight into transcription direction and the crRNA biogenesis in serovar Lai essential for RNA-mediated interference of invading nucleic acids.

Three families of Asgard archaeal viruses identified in metagenome-assembled genomes

Asgardarchaeota harbour many eukaryotic signature proteins and are widely considered to represent the closest archaeal relatives of eukaryotes. Whether similarities between Asgard archaea and eukaryotes extend to their viromes remains unknown. Here we present 20 metagenome-assembled genomes of Asgardarchaeota from deep-sea sediments of the basin off the Shimokita Peninsula, Japan. By combining a CRISPR spacer search of metagenomic sequences with phylogenomic analysis, we identify three family-level groups of viruses associated with Asgard archaea. The first group, verdandiviruses, includes tailed viruses of the class Caudoviricetes (realm Duplodnaviria); the second, skuldviruses, consists of viruses with predicted icosahedral capsids of the realm Varidnaviria; and the third group, wyrdviruses, is related to spindle-shaped viruses previously identified in other archaea. More than 90% of the proteins encoded by these viruses of Asgard archaea show no sequence similarity to proteins encoded by other known viruses. Nevertheless, all three proposed families consist of viruses typical of prokaryotes, providing no indication of specific evolutionary relationships between viruses infecting Asgard archaea and eukaryotes. Verdandiviruses and skuldviruses are likely to be lytic, whereas wyrdviruses potentially establish chronic infection and are released without host cell lysis. All three groups of viruses are predicted to play important roles in controlling Asgard archaea populations in deep-sea ecosystems.

Assembly of Cas7 subunits of Leptospira on the mature crRNA of CRISPR-Cas I-B is modulated by divalent ions

The spirochete Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni harbors the genetic elements of the CRISPR-Cas type I-B system in its genome. CRISPR-Cas is a CRISPR RNA (crRNA) mediated adaptive immune system in most prokaryotes against mobile genetic elements (MGEs). To eliminate the intruding MGEs, CRISPR-Cas type I systems utilize a Cascade (CRISPR-associated complex for antiviral defense) complex composed of Cas5, Cas6, Cas7, and Cas8 bound with a crRNA. The Cas7 is essentially known to constitute the major component of the Cascade complex. The present study reports the biochemical characterization of the Cas7 (LinCas7) from the CRISPR-Cas type I-B system of L. interrogans serovar Copenhageni. The pure recombinant LinCas7 (rLinCas7) exists as a monomer in the solution by size exclusion chromatography. The rLinCas7 demonstrates an endoDNase activity dependent upon divalent Mg²⁺ ions, monovalent ions, pH, temperature, and substrate size. Analysis of ribonucleoprotein composite (rLinCas7-crRNA) by electron microscopy and native-PAGE demonstrated that rLinCas7 could oligomerize on the mature CRISPR RNA (crRNA) framework in the presence of Mg²⁺ ions. The ribonucleoprotein composite attains a helical shape similar to the backbone of the Cascade complex. However, in the absence of Mg²⁺ ions, rLinCas7 acts as an RNase. The fluorescence spectroscopy disclosed a weak interaction (K_d = 26.81 mM) between rLinCas7 and Mg²⁺ ions, leading to an overall conformational change in rLinCas7 that modulates the rLinCas7's activity on DNA and RNA substrates. The nuclease activity of LinCas7 characterized in this study aids to the functional divergences among proteins of the Cas7 family from different CRISPR-Cas systems in various organisms.

Evolutionary plasticity and functional versatility of CRISPR systems

The principal biological function of bacterial and archaeal CRISPR systems is RNA-guided adaptive immunity against viruses and other mobile genetic elements (MGEs). These systems show remarkable evolutionary plasticity and functional versatility at multiple levels, including both the defense mechanisms that lead to direct, specific elimination of the target DNA or RNA and those that cause programmed cell death (PCD) or induction of dormancy. This flexibility is also evident in the recruitment of CRISPR systems for nondefense functions. Defective CRISPR systems or individual CRISPR components have been recruited by transposons for RNA-guided transposition, by plasmids for interplasmid competition, and by viruses for antidefense and interviral conflicts. Additionally, multiple highly derived CRISPR variants of yet unknown functions have been discovered. A major route of innovation in CRISPR evolution is the repurposing of diverged repeat variants encoded outside CRISPR arrays for various structural and regulatory functions. The evolutionary plasticity and functional versatility of CRISPR systems are striking manifestations of the ubiquitous interplay between defense and “normal” cellular functions.

The CRISPR systems show remarkable functional versatility beyond their principal function as an adaptive immune mechanism. This Essay discusses how derived CRISPR systems have been recruited by transposons on multiple occasions and mediate RNA-guided transposition; derived CRISPR RNAs are frequently recruited for regulatory functions.

Evolution of Type IV CRISPR-Cas Systems: Insights from CRISPR Loci in Integrative Conjugative Elements of Acidithiobacillia

Type IV CRISPR-Cas are a distinct variety of highly derived CRISPR-Cas systems that appear to have evolved from type III systems through the loss of the target-cleaving nuclease and partial deterioration of the large subunit of the effector complex. All known type IV CRISPR-Cas systems are encoded on plasmids, integrative and conjugative elements (ICEs), or prophages, and are thought to contribute to competition between these elements, although the mechanistic details of their function remain unknown. There is a clear parallel between the compositions and likely origin of type IV and type I systems recruited by Tn7-like transposons and mediating RNA-guided transposition. We investigated the diversity and evolutionary relationships of type IV systems, with a focus on those in Acidithiobacillia, where this variety of CRISPR is particularly abundant and always found on ICEs. Our analysis revealed remarkable evolutionary plasticity of type IV CRISPR-Cas systems, with adaptation and ancillary genes originating from different ancestral CRISPR-Cas varieties, and extensive gene shuffling within the type IV loci. The adaptation module and the CRISPR array apparently were lost in the type IV ancestor but were subsequently recaptured by type IV systems on several independent occasions. We demonstrate a high level of heterogeneity among the repeats with type IV CRISPR arrays, which far exceed the heterogeneity of any other known CRISPR repeats and suggest a unique adaptation mechanism. The spacers in the type IV arrays, for which protospacers could be identified, match plasmid genes, in particular those encoding the conjugation apparatus components. Both the biochemical mechanism of type IV CRISPR-Cas function and their role in the competition among mobile genetic elements remain to be investigated.

Sequence specific integration by the family 1 casposase from Candidatus Nitrosopumilus koreensis AR1

Casposase, a homolog of Cas1 integrase, is encoded by a superfamily of mobile genetic elements known as casposons. While family 2 casposase has been well documented in both function and structure, little is known about the other three casposase families. Here, we studied the family 1 casposase lacking the helix-turn-helix (HTH) domain from Candidatus Nitrosopumilus koreensis AR1 (Ca. N. koreensis). The determinants for integration by Ca. N. koreensis casposase were extensively investigated, and it was found that a 13-bp target site duplication (TSD) sequence, a minimal 3-bp leader and three different nucleotides of the TSD sequences are indispensable for target specific integration. Significantly, the casposase can site-specifically integrate a broad range of terminal inverted repeat (TIR)-derived oligonucleotides ranging from 7-nt to ∼4000-bp, and various oligonucleotides lacking the 5′-TTCTA-3′ motif at the 3′ end of TIR sequence can be integrated efficiently. Furthermore, similar to some Cas1 homologs, the casposase utilizes a 5′-ATAA-3′ motif in the TSD as a molecular ruler to dictate nucleophilic attack at 9-bp downstream of the end of the ruler during the spacer-side integration. By characterizing the family 1 Ca. N. koreensis casposase, we have extended our understanding on mechanistic similarities and evolutionary connections between casposons and the adaptation elements of CRISPR-Cas immunity.

Characterizing the transcripts of Leptospira CRISPR I-B array and its processing with endoribonuclease LinCas6

In Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni, the CRISPR-Cas I-B locus possesses a CRISPR array between the two independent cas-operons. Using the reverse transcription-PCR and the in vitro endoribonuclease assay with Cas6 of Leptospira (LinCas6), we account that the CRISPR is transcriptionally active and is conventionally processed. The LinCas6 specifically excises at one site within the synthetic cognate repeat RNA or the repeats of precursor-CRISPR RNA (pre-crRNA) in the sense direction. In contrast, the antisense repeat RNA is cleaved at multiple sites. LinCas6 functions as a single turnover endoribonuclease on its repeat RNA substrate, where substitution of one of predicted active site residues (His38) resulted in reduced activity. This study highlights the comprehensive understanding of the Leptospira CRISPR array transcription and its processing by LinCas6 that is central to RNA-mediated CRISPR-Cas I-B adaptive immunity.

Genome editing for plant research and crop improvement

The advent of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) has had a profound impact on plant biology, and crop improvement. In this review, we summarize the state-of-the-art development of CRISPR technologies and their applications in plants, from the initial introduction of random small indel (insertion or deletion) mutations at target genomic loci to precision editing such as base editing, prime editing and gene targeting. We describe advances in the use of class 2, types II, V, and VI systems for gene disruption as well as for precise sequence alterations, gene transcription, and epigenome control.