Inhibitory Effect of Crocin on Metastasis of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer by Interfering with Wnt/β-Catenin Pathway in Murine Model

Association between dietary carotenoid intake and breast cancer risk: a case-control study among Korean women

The association between dietary carotenoids and breast cancer (BC) risks were inconsistent. Therefore, this study investigated the association between dietary carotenoid and BC risks among Korean women. We recruited participants from the National Cancer Centre of Korea. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated with a logistic regression model. There was an inverse association between dietary carotenoid subclasses and BC risks; in particular, a higher intake of β-carotene and lutein/zeaxanthin was associated with reduced BC risks. After subgroup analysis with estrogen receptor (ER)/progesterone receptor (PR) status, there was similar trend among ER-/PR- women. We further investigated which foods contribute to the carotenoid intake. A higher intake of radish leaves, kale, and bracken was associated with lowered BC risks. Accordingly, dietary carotenoid, particularly β-carotene and lutein/zeaxanthin, appears to be associated with a lower risk of BC among Korean women.

The effect of saffron and its extracts on the treatment of breast cancer: A narrative review

Breast cancer (BC) is the most prevalent malignancy in women and the second most common disease worldwide, affecting approximately one million individuals annually. Despite the efficacy of conventional chemotherapy, medication resistance and adverse effects limit its effectiveness, leading researchers to explore alternative treatments, including herbal remedies. Saffron, a well-known spice derived from the Crocus sativus L. plant, has shown potential as a BC treatment. The active components of saffron exhibit anti-cancer properties by inducing apoptosis, inhibiting cell division, and modulating signaling pathways implicated in cancer development, such as PI3K/AKT, NF-κB, and MAPK. Clinical findings suggest that saffron can alleviate chemotherapy-induced symptoms, reduce serum tumor marker levels, and enhance quality of life. Preliminary clinical trials are investigating the safety and efficacy of saffron in treating BC, with recent evidence indicating that recommended doses of saffron supplementation are well-tolerated and safe. This review provides an overview of the anti-tumor effects of saffron and its unique chemical composition in BC. However, further research and clinical studies are imperative to fully comprehend the potential of saffron in adjuvant therapy for BC patients.

The therapeutic effect of traditional Chinese medicine on breast cancer through modulation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

Breast cancer, the most prevalent malignant tumor among women globally, is significantly influenced by the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, which plays a crucial role in its initiation and progression. While conventional chemotherapy, the standard clinical treatment, suffers from significant drawbacks like severe side effects, high toxicity, and limited prognostic efficacy, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) provides a promising alternative. TCM employs a multi-targeted therapeutic approach, which results in fewer side effects and offers a high potential for effective treatment. This paper presents a detailed analysis of the therapeutic impacts of TCM on various subtypes of breast cancer, focusing on its interaction with the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Additionally, it explores the effectiveness of both monomeric and compound forms of TCM in the management of breast cancer. We also discuss the potential of establishing biomarkers for breast cancer treatment based on key proteins within the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Our aim is to offer new insights into the prevention and treatment of breast cancer and to contribute to the standardization of TCM.

Crocin inhibit the metastasis of MDA-MB-231 cell line by suppressing epithelial to mesenchymal transition through WNT/β-catenin signalling pathway

Background

Triple-negative breast cancer has the poorest prognosis and survival rates compared to other breast cancer subtypes due to its invasive behaviours. This type of cancer does not respond to biological therapies and exhibits resistance to available treatment options. Therefore, it is imperative to discover new therapeutics to address this challenge.

Methods

In this study, a TNBC cell line was utilized to investigate the anti-metastatic effect of crocin on the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Cell proliferation was assessed using the MTT assay, and the effects of crocin on migration were monitored through transwell and wound healing experiments. The expression of specific epithelial-mesenchymal transition marker genes was evaluated using real-time polymerase chain reaction, and β-catenin expression was also examined through real-time polymerase chain reaction.

Results

The findings revealed that crocin significantly inhibits cell proliferation and migration of tumour cells in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, crocin decreased the expression of Vimentin, Snail, Zeb-1, and β-catenin. Additionally, crocin increased the expression of E-cadherin in the MDA-MB-231 cell line.

Conclusions

The results demonstrated an association between crocin and the Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway. In conclusion, this study establishes that crocin holds promise as a potential therapeutic option for triple-negative breast cancer.

Euphorbia factor L1 suppresses breast cancer liver metastasis via DDR1-mediated immune infiltration

Euphorbia factor L1 (EFL1), a lathyrane-type diterpenoid from the medicinal herb Euphorbia lathyris L., has been documented to possess various pharmacologic actives. However, the function of EFL1 on breast cancer is not clear. In this study, we explored the effect and mechanism of EFL1 on breast cancer liver metastasis. Female BALB/c mice were subjected to breast cancer-surgical hepatic implantation (SHI) to establish breast cancer liver metastasis model in vivo. At 10 days post-surgery, mice were administrated with EFL1 once daily for a total of 2 weeks. Serum AST and ALT activities, abdominal circumference, peritoneal fluid, tumor weight and volume were determined to assess liver and mesenteric re-metastasis of breast cancer. H&E staining was used to observe morphology changes in tumor, liver and small intestine tissues. ELISA was applied to observe inflammatory levels. Tumor DDR1 expression and immune infiltration were determined using western blotting, immunohistochemistry and flow cytometer methods. Our results showed that EFL1 administration improved liver function (AST and ALT activities), ascites, liver metastasis and mesenteric re-metastasis in SHI mice. Also, SHI-induced inflammatory cell infiltration and IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α generation in ascites were decreased by EFL1 treatment. Mechanism study revealed that EFL1 intervention enhanced the ratios of CD4+ and CD8+ and CD49b+(NK) T lymphocytes and decreased Treg cells through downregulating DDR1 in the tumor of SHI mice. Furthermore, overexpression of DDR1 abolished the anti-liver metastasis effect and pro-immune infiltration action of EFL1 in SHI mice. Together, our findings suggested that EFL1 protects against breast cancer liver metastasis in vivo by targeting DDR1-mediated immune infiltration.

Advances on the anti-tumor mechanisms of the carotenoid Crocin

Saffron is located in the upper part of the crocus stigma of iridaceae, which has a long history of medicinal use. Crocin (molecular formula C44H64O24) is a natural floral glycoside ester compound extracted from saffron, which is a type carotenoid. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that crocin has multiple therapeutic effects including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-stone effects. In recent years, crocin has been widely noticed due to its considerable anti-tumor effects manifested by the induction of tumor cell apoptosis, inhibition of tumor cell proliferation, inhibition of tumor cell invasion and metastasis, enhancement of chemotherapy sensitivity and improvement of immune status. The anti-tumor effects have been shown in various malignant tumors such as gastric cancer, liver cancer, cervical cancer, breast cancer and colorectal cancer. In this review, we compiled recent studies on the anti-tumor effects of crocin and summarized its anti-tumor mechanism for developing ideas of treating malignancies and exploring anti-tumor drugs.

Investigation of the Ability of Crocin to Treat Skin Cancer Chemically Induced in Mice via the Inhibition of the Wnt/β-Catenin and Fibrotic Pathway

Background The Wnt pathway is a major pathway in the pathogenesis of skin cancer. Moreover, crocin is one of the carotenoid compounds present in the flowers of gardenia and crocus. Crocin is responsible for the characteristic color of saffron. Aims This study was conducted to discover the therapeutic effects of crocin against skin cancer induced in mice by blocking the Wnt pathway with subsequent effects on inflammation and fibrosis. Methods For the induction of skin cancer in mice, the application of DMBA and Croton oil was used. The dorsal skin was used for the evaluation of the gene and protein expression of TGF-β, SMAD, Wnt, β-catenin, TNF-α, and NFκB. Part of the skin is stained with Mallory trichrome. Results The use of crocin for treating skin cancer mice significantly reduced both the number of tumors and the number of scratches. In addition, crocin inhibited epidermal hyperplasia. Finally, crocin reduced the gene expression and protein levels of Wnt, β-catenin, SMAD, NFκB; TGF-β and TNF-α. Conclusions Crocin produced therapeutic effects against skin cancer induced in mice by blocking the expression of Wnt followed by blocking the pro-inflammatory pathway through downregulation of NFκB and TNF-α. In addition, crocin blocked the fibrosis pathway via the downregulation of TGF-β.

Compounds from diverse natural origin against triple-negative breast cancer: A comprehensive review

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is caused due to the lack of estrogen receptors (ER), progesterone receptors (PR), and human epidermal growth factor 2 (HER2) expression. Triple-negative breast cancer is the most aggressive heterogeneous disease that is capable of producing different clones and mutations. Tumorigenesis in TNBC is caused due to the mutation or overexpression of tumor suppressor genes. It is also associated with mutations in the BRCA gene which is linked to hereditary breast cancer. In addition, PARP proteins and checkpoint proteins also play a crucial function in causing TNBC. Many cell signaling pathways are dysregulated in TNBC. Even though chemotherapy and immunotherapy are good options for TNBC treatment, the response rates are still low in general. Many phytochemicals that are derived from natural compounds have shown very good inhibitions for TNBC. Natural compounds have the great advantage of being less toxic, having lesser side effects, and being easily available. The secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, terpenoids, steroids, and flavonoids in natural products make them promising inhibitors of TNBC. Their compositions also offer vital insights into inhibitory action, which could lead to new cancer-fighting strategies. This review can help in understanding how naturally occurring substances and medicinal herbs decrease specific tumors and pave the way for the development of novel and extremely efficient antitumor therapies.

MACC1-Dependent Antitumor Effect of Curcumin in Colorectal Cancer

Metastasis is the main reason for the high mortality rate of colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. Despite the whole improvement in the field of cancer medicine, the treatment options for the patient in the late stages are very restricted. Our previous studies have elucidated metastasis-associated in colon cancer 1 (MACC1) as a direct link to metastasis formation. Therefore, we have aimed to inhibit its expression by using natural products, which are recently the center of most studies due to their low side effects and good tolerability. In this study, we have investigated the effect of one of the promising natural products, curcumin, on MACC1 expression and MACC1-induced tumor-promoting pathways. Curcumin reduced the MACC1 expression, restricted the MACC1-induced proliferation, and was able to reduce the MACC1-induced cell motility as one of the crucial steps for the distant dissemination of the tumor. We further showed the MACC1-dependent effect of curcumin on clonogenicity and wound healing. This study is, to our knowledge, the first identification of the effect of curcumin on the restriction of cancer motility, proliferation, and colony-forming ability by using MACC1 as a target.

Countering Triple Negative Breast Cancer via Impeding Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling, a Phytotherapeutic Approach

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is characterized as a heterogeneous disease with severe malignancy and high mortality. Aberrant Wnt/β-catenin signaling is responsible for self-renewal and mammosphere generation, metastasis and resistance to apoptosis and chemotherapy in TNBC. Nonetheless, in the absence of a targeted therapy, chemotherapy is regarded as the exclusive treatment strategy for the treatment of TNBC. This review aims to provide an unprecedented overview of the plants and herbal derivatives which repress the progression of TNBC through prohibiting the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Herbal medicine extracts and bioactive compounds (alkaloids, retinoids. flavonoids, terpenes, carotenoids and lignans) alone, in combination with each other and/or with chemotherapy agents could interrupt the various steps of Wnt/β-catenin signaling, i.e., WNT, FZD, LRP, GSK3β, Dsh, APC, β-catenin and TCF/LEF. These phytotherapy agents diminish proliferation, metastasis, breast cancer stem cell self-renewal and induce apoptosis in cell and animal models of TNBC through the down-expression of the downstream target genes of Wnt signaling. Some of the herbal derivatives simultaneously impede Wnt/β-catenin signaling and other overactive pathways in triple negative breast cancer, including: mTORC1; ER stress and SATB1 signaling. The herbal remedies and their bioactive ingredients perform essential roles in the treatment of the very fatal TNBC via repression of Wnt/β-catenin signaling.

Crocin molecular signaling pathways at a glance: A comprehensive review

Crocin is a hydrophilic carotenoid that is synthesized in the flowers of the Crocus genus. Numerous in vitro and in vivo research projects have been published about the biological and pharmacological properties and toxicity of crocin. Crocin acts as a memory enhancer, anxiolytic, aphrodisiac, antidepressant, neuroprotective, and so on. Here, we introduce an updated and comprehensive review of crocin molecular mechanisms based on previously examined and mentioned in the literature. Different studies confirmed the significant effect of crocin to control pathological conditions, including oxidative stress, inflammation, metabolic disorders, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. The neuroprotective effect of crocin could be related to the activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), Notch, and cyclic-AMP response element-binding protein signaling pathways. The crocin also protects the cardiovascular system through the inhibitory effect on toll-like receptors. The regulatory effect of crocin on PI3K/AKT/mTOR, AMP-activated protein kinase, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor pathways can play an effective role in the treatment of metabolic disorders. The crocin has anticancer activity through the PI3K/AKT/mTOR, MAPK, vascular endothelial growth factor, Wnt/β-catenin, and Janus kinases-signal transducer and activator of transcription suppression. Also, the nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2 and p53 signaling pathway activation may be effective in the anticancer effect of crocin. Finally, among signaling pathways regulated by crocin, the most important ones seem to be those related to the regulatory effect on the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway.

Insight into the Progress on Natural Dyes: Sources, Structural Features, Health Effects, Challenges, and Potential

(1) Background: Dyes play an important role in food, medicine, textile, and other industries, which make human life more colorful. With the increasing demand for food safety, the development of natural dyes becomes more and more attractive. (2) Methods: The literature was searched using the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, and SciFinder and this scoping review was carried out following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). (3) Results: 248 articles were included in this review. This review summarizes the research progress on natural dyes in the last ten years. According to structural features, natural dyes mainly include carotenoids, polyphenols, porphyrins, and alkaloids, and some of the newest dyes are summarized. Some pharmacological activities of carotenoids, anthocyanin, curcumin, and betalains in the last 10 years are summarized, and the biological effects of dyes regarding illumination conditions. The disadvantages of natural dyes, including sources, cost, stability, and poor bioavailability, limit their application. Here, some feasible strategies (potential resources, biotechnology, new extraction and separation strategies, strategies for improving stability) are described, which will contribute to the development and utilization of natural dyes. (4) Conclusion: Natural dyes show health benefits and potential in food additives. However, it is necessary for natural dyes to pass toxicity tests and quality tests and receive many regulatory approvals before their final entry into the market as food colorants or as drugs.

Crocin attenuates NF-κB-mediated inflammation and proliferation in breast cancer cells by down-regulating PRKCQ

Breast cancer (BC) is the most commonly diagnosed cancer confronting women worldwide. Crocin, a glycosylated carotenoid extracted from Crocus sativus L., possesses anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory activities. This study tried to explore the influences of crocin on proliferation and inflammation of BC cells, and to investigate the possible mechanism. The protein levels of protein kinase C theta (PRKCQ) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p-p65 and p65 were examined using western blot analysis. The potential targets of crocin were predicted using the PharmMapper database. Cell viability and proliferation were determined utilizing CCK-8 and EdU incorporation assays, respectively. Inflammation was assessed by detecting the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) using RT-qPCR and ELISA. Results showed that crocin inhibited NF-κB activation and suppressed cell viability and proliferation in BC cells. Crocin caused a significant reduction of levels of TNF-α and IL-1β, suggesting that crocin suppressed inflammation in BC cells. NF-κB inhibition decreased proliferation and inflammation in BC cells. Additionally, PRKCQ was identified as a potential target of crocin according to PharmMapper database. Crocin treatment inhibited the activation of NF-κB in BC cells by reducing PRKCQ expression. Mechanistically, PRKCQ-dependent activation of NF-κB pathway reversed the effects of crocin on the proliferation and inflammation in BC cells. In conclusion, crocin inhibited NF-κB-mediated inflammation and proliferation in BC cells through reducing PRKCQ expression.

Comprehensive proteomics and sialiomics of the anti-proliferative activity of safranal on triple negative MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive subtype of breast cancer with no efficient treatment. Researchers have indicated the importance of quantitative approaches on proteome and different post-translation modifications studies both in diagnosis and treatment purposes. Sialic acid-containing glycopeptides (the sialiome) is one of these modifications which can be used as a tool in cancer diagnosis or therapeutic strategies since the sialylation is strongly associated with cancer migration and metastasis. Based on our study, safranal, which is a non-toxic compound in orally intakes, exhibits a significant cytotoxic effect on MDA-MB-231 in comparison to normal cells. We conducted a comprehensive proteomics and sialiomics analysis of safranal treated MDA-MB-231 cells by using a combination of TMT labeling and titanium dioxide enrichment of sialylated N-linked glycopeptides to investigate the underlying molecular mechanism behind safranal-induced apoptosis. Safranal has main effect on the inhibition of metabolism and mitochondrial dysfunction. It regulates proteins considered as activator of DNA fragmentation and apoptosis mediators. Moreover, safranal regulates sialylation of glycoproteins involving in cellular adhesion, migration and survival. It suppresses cell survival and metastasis through the alteration of the sialylation level on important signaling receptors. These results highlight the impact of safranal as a potent anticancer compound on TNBCs which also can be strongly used in daily diets. SIGNIFICANCE: In first step, we evaluated the cell viability of MDA-MB-231 cell lines against the purified saffron components (total crocin, picrocrocin, crocin I and safranal). Safranal was the only compound demonstrated the anti-proliferation effect. In order to obtain an understanding of safranal cytotoxic effect on MDA-MB-231, we designed the three set of treated cell lines in 30 min, 12 h and 24 h time-points in three replicates and a combination of TMT-based labeling quantitative proteomics and titanium dioxide (TiO2)-based enrichment of sialylated N-linked glycopeptides for sialiomics analysis as a strategy to follow the more detailed mechanisms of safranal effect. The results of bioinformatics analysis revealed the multifunction role of safranal on MDA-MB-231 cell lines. Safranal mainly dysregulates mitochondrial function, inhibits metabolism and starts initial signaling of apoptosis which lead to DNA fragmentation. Moreover, safranal caused the majority of down-regulation in sialylation profile in all time-points. Safranal also declines the cell survival, adhesion and migration by dysregulation of the sialylation level in important proteins including integrins, tumor necrosis factor receptor and cell adhesion molecules (CAMs). The results provide a set of therapeutic targets for triple negative breast cancer which can help designing of effective anticancer drugs specially in targeted therapies.

Crocins: A comprehensive review of structural characteristics, pharmacokinetics and therapeutic effects

Crocins, as a kind of water-soluble carotenoid pigment, are a series of ester compounds formed from crocetin and gentibiose or glucose, and mainly distributed among Crocus sativus L. (CSL), Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. (GJE). Crocins exhibit a wide range of pharmacological effects on neurodegeneration, cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, depression, liver disease, arthritis, tumor, diabetes, etc. This review systematically discussed the pharmacologic study of crocins in the aspect of structural characteristic and pharmacokinetics, and summarized the mechanism of treating disease. It summarized the abundant research of crocins from 1984 to 2020 based on the above aspects, which provide a reference for the deeply development and application of crocins.

Crocin and Metformin suppress metastatic breast cancer progression via VEGF and MMP9 downregulations: in vitro and in vivo studies

Metastatic breast cancer remains a serious health concern and numerous investigations recommended medicinal plants as a complementary therapy. Crocin is one of the known anticancer bio-component. Recently, the inhibitory effect of metformin has been studied on the various aspects of cancer. However, no study reported their combination effects on metastatic breast cancer. In the present study, we have assessed their anti-metastatic effects on in vitro and in vivo breast cancer models. Using MTT assay, scratch, and adhesion tests, we have evaluated the cytotoxic, anti-invasive and anti-adhesion effects of crocin and metformin on 4T1 cell line, respectively. Their protective effects and MMP9 as well as VEGF protein expression levels (Western blotting) investigated in the 4T1 murine breast cancer model. Our results showed that both crocin and metformin reduced cell viability, delayed scratch healing and inhibited the cell adhesion, in vitro. While crocin alone restored the mice's weight reduction, crocin, metformin, and their combination significantly reduced the tumor volume size and enhanced animal survival rate in murine breast cancer model, responses that were associated with VEGF and MMP9 down-regulation. These findings suggest that a combination of crocin and metformin could serve as a novel therapeutic approach to enhance the effectiveness of metastatic breast cancer therapy.

Treatment-induced tumor cell apoptosis following high-intensity interval training and saffron aqueous extract in mice with breast cancer

This study was to investigate whether high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and saffron aqueous extract (SAE) would provide a synergistic effect to improve tumor volume reduction and also modulate pro- and anti-apoptotic protein expression in tumor tissue of 4T1 breast cancer-bearing mice. Female mice following induction of breast cancer through injection of 4T1 cell lines were randomly divided into four groups: (1) HIIT, (2) SAE, (3) HIIT+ SAE, and (4) control. The tumor volume was significantly lower in the HIIT, SAE, and HIIT+SAE groups than in the controls. The protein level of caspase-3 in the HIIT and the SAE groups was higher than in the control and the HIIT+SAE groups. The Bax protein level in the SAE group was higher than in the control. The HIIT+SAE group showed a lower level of Bax than the HIIT and the SAE groups. The protein level of Bcl-2 was higher in the HIIT+SAE vs. both the HIIT and the SAE groups. Finally, the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 was significantly higher in the HIIT and the SAE groups than in the HIIT+SAE and control groups. These findings indicate that a combination of HIIT and SAE interventions does not improve the apoptotic induction in tumor tissue, while both HIIT and SAE treatments may mediate apoptotic pathway as evinced by the elevated ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 and caspase-3 levels during tumor progression in breast cancer-bearing mice.

Saffron anti-metastatic properties, ancient spice novel application

Crocus sativus L. (saffron), was applied as a spice, food colorant and medicine since four millennia ago and has been used as a remedy for various maladies. In the last three decades, the anti-primary tumor properties of saffron and its main carotenoids, crocin and crocetin, have been well explored. Despite the fact that metastasis is the leading cause of death in cancer patients, the anti-metastatic potential of saffron and its carotenoids has been surveyed only this decade. This review aims to provide an unprecedented overview of the anti-metastatic effects of saffron, crocin and crocetin, and the mechanisms underlying these effects. Investigations on various cancers demonstrated the anti-migratory, anti-invasion, anti-angiogenic potentials of saffron and its carotenoids, as well as their effects suppressing cell-ECM adhesion and enhancing cell-cell attachment. Saffron and its carotenoids exert their impact through different mechanisms such as reduction of CD34 and suppression of Wnt/β-catenin, Ras/ERK, P38, DCLK1, EMT, matrix metalloproteinases and urokinases. Crocin displayed more effective anti-metastatic potency, in comparison with saffron extract and crocetin. The bioaccessibility/bioavailability, nontoxicity on normal cells, confirmed anti-tumor efficiency and the recent evidence on the anti-metastatic potential of saffron and its carotenoids, recommends them as a propitious multipotent dietary agent and herbal medicine.

Curry versus cancer: Potential of some selected culinary spices against cancer with in vitro, in vivo, and human trials evidences

Spices are dietary agents with immense potential for cancer chemo-prevention. A wide variety of spices are extensively used as food flavoring agents which possess potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties due to the presence of certain bio-active compounds in them. In vitro, in vivo studies and clinical trials of selected spices against various types of cancer are being specified in this review. Effect of certain putative dietary spices namely turmeric, clove, garlic, ginger, fennel, black cumin, cinnamon, pepper, saffron, rosemary, and chilli along with its role in cancer are being discussed. Literature search was conducted through PubMed, Google scholar, Science direct, and Scopus using the keywords "spice," "cancer," "natural medicine," "herbal compound," "bioactive compounds." About 4,000 published articles and 127 research papers were considered to grab the brief knowledge on spices and their anticancer potential on a predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Historically, spices and herbs are known for its traditional flavor, odor, and medicinal properties. Intensified risk of chronic and pervasive clinical conditions and increased cost of advanced drug treatments have developed a keen interest among researchers to explore the miscellaneous properties of herbal spices. Cancer is one of the deleterious causes of mortality affecting a huge number of populations worldwide. Arrays of cancer treatments including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy are used to compromise the disease but effective only when the size of the tumor is small. So, an effective treatment need to be developed that produces less side effects and herbal spices are found to be the promising agents. In this review, we illustrate about different in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies of wide range of culinary spices having antineoplastic potential.

Evaluation of anti-tumor effects of crocin on a novel 3D tissue-engineered tumor model based on sodium alginate/gelatin microbead

Crocin, as one of the biologically active components of saffron, has anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-depressant and auxiliary anti-tumor effects. Studies have shown that crocin could promote breast cancer cell apoptosis. However, conventional methods are mainly based on two-dimensional (2D) cell culture models, which are difficult to reproduce the tumor environment in vivo due to space constraints. In this study, we prepared a three-dimensional (3D) cell model in vitro based on sodium alginate/gelatin to evaluate the inhibitory effect of crocin on MCF-7 cells, which could bridge the gap in crocin drug evaluation between 2D and 3D cell model in vitro. Different from the 2D culture, the cells were found to aggregate in a spherical shape in the 3D microgel beads. And the CCK-8 assay showed that the growth of MCF-7 cells exposed to crocin was inhibited in a time-related and concentration-related manner. Compared with 2D culture (IC₅₀ that MCF-7 cells treated with crocin at 24 h, 48 h, 72 h: 3.68, 2.55 and 1.53 mg/mL, respectively), the IC₅₀ value of 3D culture (IC₅₀ that MCF-7 cells treated with crocin at 24 h, 48 h, 72 h: 10.12, 6.89 and 6.64 mg/mL, respectively) was significantly increased by 2.77, 2.70, 4.34 times, respectively. Besides, live/dead staining and scanning electron microscope (SEM) revealed that the 2D cultured cells shrank and ruptured after crocin treatment, and the number of living cells was considerably reduced; the size of the cell colonies in the 3D microgel beads decreased.

The signaling pathways and targets of traditional Chinese medicine and natural medicine in triple-negative breast cancer

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) has a poorer prognosis than other subtypes due to its strong invasion and higher risk of distant metastasis. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and natural medicine have the unique advantages of multitargets and small side-effects and may be used as long-term complementary and alternative therapies.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present article summarizes the classical signaling pathways and potential targets by the action of TCM and natural medicine (including extracts, active constituents and formulas) on TNBC and provides evidence for its clinical efficacy.

METHODS

The literature information was acquired from the scientific databases PubMed, Web of Science and CNKI from January 2010 to June 2020, and it was designed to elucidate the internal mechanism and role of TCM and natural medicine in the treatment of TNBC. The search key words included "Triple negative breast cancer" or "triple negative breast carcinoma", "TNBC" and "traditional Chinese medicine" or "Chinese herbal medicine", "medicinal plant", "natural plant", and "herb".

RESULTS

We described the antitumor activity of TCM and natural medicine in TNBC based on different signaling pathways. Plant medicine and herbal formulas regulated the related gene and protein expression via pathways such as PI3K/AKT/mTOR, MAPK and Wnt/β-catenin, which inhibit the growth, proliferation, migration, invasion and metastasis of TNBC cells.

CONCLUSION

The inhibitory effect of TCM and natural medicine on tumors was reflected in multiple levels and multiple pathways, providing reasonable evidence for new drug development. To make TCM and natural medicine widely and flexibly used in clinical practice, the efficacy, safety and mechanism of action need more in-depth experimental research.

Recent Advances on the Anticancer Properties of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and Its Major Constituents

Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally with an estimated 9.6 million deaths in 2018 and a sustained rise in its incidence in both developing and developed countries. According to the WHO, about 1 in 6 deaths is due to cancer. Despite the emergence of many pioneer therapeutic options for patients with cancer, their efficacy is still time-limited and noncurative. Thus, continuous intensive screening for superior and safer drugs is still ongoing and has resulted in the detection of the anticancer properties of several phytochemicals. Among the spices, Crocus sativus L. (saffron) and its main constituents, crocin, crocetin, and safranal, have attracted the interest of the scientific community. Pharmacological experiments have established numerous beneficial properties for this brilliant reddish-orange dye derived from the flowers of a humble crocus family species. Studies in cultured human malignant cell lines and animal models have demonstrated the cancer prevention and antitumor activities of saffron and its main ingredients. This review provides an insight into the advances in research on the anticancer properties of saffron and its components, discussing preclinical data, clinical trials, and patents aiming to improve the pharmacological properties of saffron and its major ingredients.

Carotenoids in Cancer Metastasis-Status Quo and Outlook

Metastasis represents a major obstacle in cancer treatment and the leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Therefore, the identification of compounds targeting the multi-step and complex process of metastasis could improve outcomes in the management of cancer patients. Carotenoids are naturally occurring pigments with a plethora of biological activities. Carotenoids exert a potent anti-cancer capacity in various cancer models in vitro and in vivo, mediated by the modulation of signaling pathways involved in the migration and invasion of cancer cells and metastatic progression, including key regulators of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition and regulatory molecules, such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs), urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) and its receptor (uPAR), hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), and others. Moreover, carotenoids modulate the expression of genes associated with cancer progression and inflammatory processes as key mediators of the complex process involved in metastasis. Nevertheless, due to the predominantly preclinical nature of the known anti-tumor effects of carotenoids, and unclear results from certain carotenoids in specific cancer types and/or specific parts of the population, a precise analysis of the anti-cancer effects of carotenoids is essential. The identification of carotenoids as effective compounds targeting the complex process of cancer progression could improve the outcomes of advanced cancer patients.

Chemo-preventive effect of crocin against experimentally-induced hepatocarcinogenesis via regulation of apoptotic and Nrf2 signaling pathways

The results of the current study investigated the chemo-preventive effect of crocin against hepatocarcinogenesis in rats with particular focus on the evaluation of the modulatory impact of crocin on apoptotic and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathways. Thioacetamide (TAA) (200 mg/kg, I.P.) was used for experimental induction of hepatocarcinogenesis in rats. Crocin administration significantly attenuated TAA-induced cancerous lesions with concomitant attenuation of impaired liver functions. This was associated with significant enhancement in hepatic Nrf2 and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression with parallel suppression in Keap-1 expression. Inline, crocin induced a significant improvement in hepatic oxidative status with enhanced antioxidant batteries. Crocin administration significantly suppressed the hepatic content of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (c-JNK) with significant upregulation in TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and caspase-8 protein expression as well as p53 gene expression; biomarkers of apoptosis. Moreover, hepatic expression of the apoptotic BAX significantly increased and the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 significantly decreased in the liver specimen; biomarkers of intrinsic apoptosis. In conclusion; crocin attenuates experimentally induced hepato-carcinogenesis via modulation of oxidative/apoptotic signaling. Namely, crocin induced hepatic expression of Nrf2 with downstream modulation of endogenous HO-1 and Keap-1 signaling with modulation of various key players of apoptosis including; c-JNK, p53, TRAIL, caspase-8, BAX, and Bcl-2.

Crocin induces autophagic cell death and inhibits cell invasion of cervical cancer SiHa cells through activation of PI3K/AKT

Background

Cervical cancer is a prevalent tumor mainly induced by Human Papilloma Virus (HPV). Autophagy was inactivated with HPV to promote cancer progression. Here we explored the effects of crocin on cervical cancer cells, mainly on autophagy and apoptosis.

Methods

SiHa cells were treated with crocin, and proliferation, metastases, apoptosis and autophagy were measured using a CCK-8 assay, transwell migration assay, flow cytometry and immunofluorescence. Protein levels were measured using western blotting. The antitumor effects of crocin were validated in female BALB/c nude mice injected with SiHa cells.

Results

The result showed that 2, 4, 8 and 16 mM of crocin significantly reduced the viability of SiHa cells within 24 h. Subsequently, 0, 1, 2 and 4 mM crocin concentrations were used in later experiments. Treatment with crocin reduced invasive cells, while increasing autophagic and apoptotic cells dose-dependently. The enhanced apoptosis and autophagy were partly validated by an increase in cleaved caspase-3/caspase-3, cleaved caspase-9/caspase9, LC3B II/I, Beclin1 and ATG7. AMPK and mTOR were inactivated with crocin treatment, while PI3K was activated. These results indicated that crocin might promote autophagy and apoptosis by inactivating AMPK and mTOR signaling. Tumor progression was inhibited in mice treated with 50 mg/kg/d of crocin, which was demonstrated by smaller tumor volumes, less VEGF expression, more intense caspase-3 staining and increased LC3B II/I in the tumor tissues.

Conclusions

Crocin inhibited the progression of cervical cancer in vitro and in vivo, possibly through inactivation of AMPK and mTOR, inhibition of proliferation and invasion, and promotion of autophagy and apoptosis. These results support the potential therapeutic value of crocin in treating cervical cancer.

Saffron Crudes and Compounds Restrict MACC1-Dependent Cell Proliferation and Migration of Colorectal Cancer Cells

The high mortality rate of colorectal cancer (CRC) patients is directly associated with metastatic dissemination. However, therapeutic options specifically for metastasis are still limited. We previously identified Metastasis-Associated in Colon Cancer 1 (MACC1) as a major causal metastasis-inducing gene. Numerous studies confirmed its value as a biomarker for metastasis risk. We investigated the inhibitory impact of saffron on MACC1-induced cancer cell growth and motility. Saffron crudes restricted the proliferation and migration of MACC1-expressing CRC cells in a concentration- and MACC1-dependent manner. Saffron delays cell cycle progression at G2/M-phase and does not induce apoptosis. Rescue experiments showed that these effects are reversible. Analysis of active saffron compounds elucidated that crocin was the main compound that reproduced total saffron crudes effects. We showed the interaction of MACC1 with the cancer stem cell (CSC) marker DCLK1, which contributes to metastasis formation in different tumor entities. Saffron extracts reduced DCLK1 with crocin being responsible for this reduction. Saffron's anti-proliferative and anti-migratory effects in MACC1-expressing cells are mediated by crocin through DCLK1 down-regulation. This research is the first identification of saffron-based compounds restricting cancer cell proliferation and motility progression via the novel target MACC1.

Cytosolic and mitochondrial ROS production resulted in apoptosis induction in breast cancer cells treated with Crocin: The role of FOXO3a, PTEN and AKT signaling

Different groups have reported the Crocin anticancer activity. We previously showed Crocin-induced apoptosis in rat model of breast and gastric cancers, through the increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and caspases activity, as well as the cell cycle arrest in a p53-dependent manner. Since Crocin antioxidant activity has been shown under different conditions, it is interesting to elucidate its apoptotic mechanism. Here, we treated two breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, with Crocin. MTT and ROS assays, cell cycle arrest, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and caspase3 activity were determined. PARP cleavage and expression of some proteins were studied using Western blotting and immunofluorescence. The results indicated stepwise ROS generation in cytosol and mitochondria after Crocin treatment. Attenuating the early ROS level, using diphenyleneiodonium, diminished the sequent mitochondrial damage (decreasing Δψ) and downstream apoptotic signaling. Crocin induced ROS production, FOXO3a expression and nuclear translocation, and then, elevation of the expression of FOXO3a target genes (Bim and PTEN) and caspase-3 activation. Application of N-acetylcysteine blocked AKT/FOXO3a/Bim signaling. FOXO3a knockdown resulted in a decrease of Bim, PTEN and caspase 3, after Crocin treatment. PTEN knockdown caused a decrease in FOXO3a, Bim and caspase 3, in addition to an increase in p-AKT and p-FOXO3a, after Crocin treatment. In conclusion, Crocin induced apoptosis in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. The ROS-activated FOXO3a cascade plays a central role in this process. FOXO3a-mediated upregulation of PTEN exerted a further inhibition of the AKT survival pathway. These data provide a new insight into applications of Crocin for cancer therapy.

Phenolic compounds from Mediterranean foods as nutraceutical tools for the prevention of cancer: The effect of honey polyphenols on colorectal cancer stem-like cells from spheroids

Chemoresistance and development of relapses are ascribable to a rare cell population of tumour mass: cancer stem cells (CSCs). Targeting CSCs could increase patients' survival rate and it is important to identify molecules that can act on the main pathways of these cells. Natural bioactive compounds, of which Manuka honey (MH) is rich, could be a good opportunity to target them. This work aims to evaluate the effect of MH on CSCs-like from human colorectal carcinoma (HCT-116 cell line) enriched through the in vitro sphere-forming assay. The results showed that MH reduced the volume of the entire culture of spheroids, affecting also their morphological parameters and induced apoptosis and ROS intracellular accumulation in CSCs-like. In addition, MH decreased the mRNA expression of one of ABC transporters (ABCG2) and affected self-renewal ability through the downregulation of the mRNA expression of one of the receptor membranes of Wnt/β-catenin pathway (Frizzled 7).

High-Intensity Training and Saffron: Effects on Breast Cancer-related Gene Expression

PURPOSE

Exercise training and some herbal components have an anticancer function and can suppress tumor growth. However, the role of these protective factors in altering breast cancer-related gene expression is still unknown. Thus, this study aimed to assess the effect of 4 wk of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and saffron (Crocus sativus L.) aqueous extract (SAE) on Sirtuin-1 (SIRT1), human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT), and p53 gene expression in female mice breast tumor tissue induced by 4T1 cell line.

METHODS

This study was performed on female BALB/c mice. The 4T1 breast cancer cells were subcutaneously implanted, and mice were randomly sorted into the following groups: control, HIIT, SAE, HIIT + SAE (n = 10 mice per group), and sham (n = 4 mice per group). Mice were sacrificed at the end of the intervention period, and the expression of SIRT-1, hTERT, and p53 was determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

The mRNA level of SIRT1 was increased in the HIIT + SAE group compared with the HIIT and control groups (P = 0.007 and P = 0.03, respectively). Moreover, the amount of mRNA of p53 was increased after a 4-wk HIIT compared with the control and HIIT + SAE groups in tumor tissue (P = 0.03 and P = 0.02, respectively). No change was found in the mRNA expression of hTERT between groups (P = 0.92).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that HIIT may reduce tumor burden through the upregulation of p53 associated with tumor suppression pathway. In contrast, the combination of HIIT and SAE did not alter p53 and SIRT1 expression levels and may suppress tumor growth by other mechanisms.

The effects of high-intensity interval training and saffron aqueous extract supplementation on alterations of body weight and apoptotic indices in skeletal muscle of 4T1 breast cancer-bearing mice with cachexia

Exercise training and antioxidant supplementation may improve unintentional weight loss and programmed cell death associated with cancer cachexia. The aim of this study was to examine the alterations of body weight and apoptotic indices in skeletal muscle of 4T1 breast cancer-bearing mice with cachexia following 4 weeks of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and saffron aqueous extract (SAE) supplementation. Female BALB/c mice following induction of breast cancer were divided into (i) controls, (ii) HIIT, (iii) SAE, (iv) HIIT+SAE, and (v) sham groups. Mice were euthanized and gastrocnemius muscle was collected after intervention. The control group elicited a significant weight reduction during third and fourth weeks of tumor injection, while other treatments such as HIIT and SAE, but not HIIT+SAE, showed that they counteracted this adverse event. Furthermore, HIIT and SAE treatments (not HIIT+SAE) demonstrated reduced caspase-3 and Bax levels compared with the control group. The level of Bcl-2 was elevated following both HIIT and SAE treatments compared with the control group. Finally, the ratio of Bcl-2 to Bax was significantly higher in both HIIT and SAE groups, but was lower in HIIT+SAE group compared with sham group. It is likely that either HIIT or SAE intervention alone (not HIIT+SAE) represents a readily applicable approach in the regulation of muscle wasting and apoptosis in cancer cachexia. Novelty HIIT is associated with a reduced risk of cancer-related muscle wasting. SAE enhances the improvement of muscle loss and apoptotic indices. Combination of HIIT and SAE does not improve cancer-related loss of muscle mass and mediate apoptotic activation.

Crocin Alleviates Pain Hyperalgesia in AIA Rats by Inhibiting the Spinal Wnt5a/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway and Glial Activation

At present, most of the drugs have little effect on the pathological process of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Analgesia is an important measure in the treatment of RA and is also one of the criteria to determine the therapeutic effects of the disease. Some studies have found that crocin, a kind of Chinese medicine, can effectively alleviate pain sensitization in pain model rats, but the mechanism is not clear. Emerging evidence indicates that crocin may inhibit the metastasis of lung and liver cancer cells from the breast by inhibiting Wnt/β-catenin and the Wnt signaling pathway is closely related to RA. Wnt5a belongs to the Wnt protein family and was previously thought to be involved only in nonclassical Wnt signaling pathways. Recent studies have shown that Wnt5a has both stimulatory and inhibitory effects on the classical Wnt signaling pathway, and so, Wnt5a has attracted increasing attention. This study demonstrated that crocin significantly increased the mechanical thresholds of adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) rats, suggesting that crocin can alleviate neuropathic pain. Crocin significantly decreased the levels of pain-related factors and glial activation. Foxy5, activator of Wnt5a, inhibited the above effects of crocin in AIA rats. In addition, intrathecal injection of a Wnt5a inhibitor significantly decreased hyperalgesia in AIA rats. This research shows that crocin may alleviate neuropathic pain in AIA rats by inhibiting the expression of pain-related molecules through the Wnt5a/β-catenin pathway, elucidating the mechanism by which crocin relieves neuropathic pain and provides a new way of thinking for the treatment of AIA pain.

Anti-metastatic properties of a potent herbal combination in cell and mice models of triple negative breast cancer

AIM

To determine the anti-metastatic potential of combinations of two bioactive carotenoids of saffron, crocin and crocetin, on 4T1 breast cancer and on a mice model of TNBC, and assess the effect of the most potent combination on the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.

MAIN METHODS

The effects of the carotenoid combinations on the viability of 4T1 cells were determined by MTT assay. The effects of the nontoxic doses on migration, mobility, invasion and adhesion to ECM were examined by scratch assay, Transwell/Matrigel-coated Transwell chamber and adhesion assay respectively. Tumors were inoculated by injecting mice with 4T1 cells. The weights and survival rates of the mice and tumor sizes were monitored. Histological analysis of the tissues was conducted. The expression levels of Wnt/β-catenin pathway genes were measured by Real-time PCR and western blotting.

KEY FINDINGS

Treatment of 4T1 cells with combination doses inhibited viability in a dose-dependent manner. The nontoxic combinations significantly inhibited migration, cell mobility and invasion, also attenuating adhesion to ECM. The combination therapy mice possessed more weight, higher survival rates and smaller tumors. Histological examination detected remarkably fewer metastatic foci in their livers and lungs. It was also demonstrated that the combinations exerted anti-metastatic effects by disturbing the Wnt/β-catenin target genes in the liver and tumors.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings propose a carotenoid combination as an alternative potent herbal treatment for TNBC, which lacks the adverse effects associated with either chemotherapeutic agents or herb-chemotherapeutic drugs.