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Wang H, Wang F, Qin W, He C, Wang F, Liang X, Li X. A critical review on the use of flue gas desulfurization gypsum to ameliorate saline-alkali soils and its prospect for reducing carbon emissions. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 945:174053. [PMID: 38897464 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Flue gas desulfurization gypsum (FGDG), a solid waste produced during sulfur removal in coal-fired power plants, has applications in saline-alkali soil amelioration due to its function of calcium‑sodium ion exchange. Existing research has focused on the use of gypsum to improve saline-alkali soils in non-coastal areas. However, coastal areas are not only extensively salinized, but an important source of methane, and surprisingly, FGDG may assist to decrease methane formation mainly by the action of sulfate radical. This is the first critical review to systematically discuss the effects of FGDG on both saline-alkali soil improvement and carbon emission control in tidal flats, including application status, amendment principles, environmental risks and methane emission control. After adding FGDG, soil salinization degree was weakened via adjusting soil structure, pH, exchangeable sodium percentage and electric conductivity, introduction of nutrients also promotes crop growth. The optimal FGDG dosage in tidal flats seems to be higher (>2 %) than that in non-coastal areas (<1 %). Its environmental risks regarding heavy metals and eutrophication are evaluated safe. In tidal areas, more methane is produced in hot seasons and ebb tides. Plants and invertebrates also promote methane release. FGDG controls methane production by promoting the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria and inhibiting methanogens. Considering methane flux levels and seawater erosion, FGDG use in low tidal beach needs more research, while that in high and middle tidal beach is recommended. This review will expand applications and appropriate use of FGDG for reducing carbon emission and improving ecological services in coastal areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoqian Wang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Feifei Wang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China.
| | - Weiran Qin
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Chiquan He
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Fushun Wang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Xia Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200244, China
| | - Xiaoping Li
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200244, China
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Kong F, Ying Y, Lu S. Heavy metal pollution risk of desulfurized steel slag as a soil amendment in cycling use of solid wastes. J Environ Sci (China) 2023; 127:349-360. [PMID: 36522067 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The by-product of wet flue gas desulfurization, desulfurized steel slag (DS), had chemical characteristics like natural gypsum that can be used to improve saline-sodic soil. However, contamination risk of heavy metals for cycling utilization of DS in agriculture was concerned mostly. Both pot and field experiments were conducted for evaluating the potential pollution risk of DS as the amendment of saline-sodic soil. Results showed that application of DS decreased the contents of Cd, Cu, Zn, and Pb, while significantly increasing chromium (Cr) content in DS-amended soils. The field experiment demonstrated that the migration of heavy metals (Cd, Zn, Cu, and Pb) in the soil profile was negligible. The application of DS at the dosage of 22.5-225 tons/ha significantly increased the Cr content in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) but lower than the national standard for feed in China (GB 13078-2017). DS altered the chemical fraction of heavy metals (Zn, Cu, and Pb), transferred exchangeable, reducible into oxidizable and residual forms in DS-amended soil. Application of DS combined with fulvic acid (FA) could effectively reduce the movement of heavy metals in soil and the accumulation of Cr in alfalfa. Based on our results, DS was a safe and feasible material for agricultural use and presented relatively little pollution risk of heavy metals. However, the results also showed that DS to a certain extent had a potential environmental risk of Cr if larger dosages of DS were used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanyi Kong
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yuqian Ying
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Shenggao Lu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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Liu S, Liu W, Jiao F, Qin W, Yang C. Production and resource utilization of flue gas desulfurized gypsum in China - A review. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 288:117799. [PMID: 34329050 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Flue gas desulfurized gypsum (FGD gypsum), mainly originates from thermal power plants, smelters, and large-scale enterprise boilers. This article reviews the production in China and the latest beneficial utilizations of FGD gypsum. China is a large coal-consuming country and has always had serious SO2 emissions. Therefore, the Chinese government has implemented a large number of desulfurization measures since 2006. With continually increasing energy consumption and increasingly stringent environmental requirements, the production of FGD gypsum has exceeded 108 tons. The basic properties and the current beneficial applications of FGD gypsum are summarized here. The practical application of FGD gypsum in four fields-building materials, agriculture, material synthesis, and soil-and its impact on the environment, are analyzed. Finally, a new direction is proposed for the future utilization of FGD gypsum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sen Liu
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Clean and Efficient Utilization of Strategic Calcium-containing Mineral Resources, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China
| | - Wei Liu
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Clean and Efficient Utilization of Strategic Calcium-containing Mineral Resources, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China
| | - Fen Jiao
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Clean and Efficient Utilization of Strategic Calcium-containing Mineral Resources, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China
| | - Wenqing Qin
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Clean and Efficient Utilization of Strategic Calcium-containing Mineral Resources, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China
| | - Congren Yang
- School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Clean and Efficient Utilization of Strategic Calcium-containing Mineral Resources, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China.
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Ondrasek G, Rengel Z. Environmental salinization processes: Detection, implications & solutions. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 754:142432. [PMID: 33254867 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
A great portion of Earth's freshwater and land resources are salt-affected and thus have restricted use or may become unsuitable for most human activities. Some of the recent scenarios warn that environmental salinization processes will continue to be exacerbated due to global climate change. The most relevant implications and side-effects in ecosystems under excessive salinity are destructive and long lasting (e.g. soil dispersion, water/soil hypersalinity, desertification, ruined biodiversity), often with non-feasible on site remediation, especially at larger scales. Agro-ecosystems are very sensitive to salinization; after a certain threshold is reached, yields and food quality start to deteriorate sharply. Additionally, salinity often coincides with numerous other environmental constrains (drought, waterlogging, pollution, acidity, nutrient deficiency, etc.) that progressively aggravate the threat to food security and general ecosystem resilience. Some well-proven, widely-used and cost-effective traditional ameliorative strategies (e.g. conservation agriculture, application of natural conditioners) help against salinity and other constraints, especially in developing countries. Remotely-sensed and integrated data of salt-affected areas combined with in situ and lab-based observations have never been so easy and rapid to acquire, precise and applicable on huge scales, representing a valuable tool for policy-makers and other stakeholders in implementing targeted measures to control and prevent ecosystem degradation (top-to-bottom approach). Continued progress in biotechnology and ecoengineering offers some of the most advanced and effective solutions against salinity (e.g. nanomaterials, marker-assisted breeding, genome editing, plant-microbial associations), albeit many knowledge gaps and ethical frontiers remain to be overcome before a successful transfer of these potential solutions to the industrial-scale food production can be effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrijel Ondrasek
- The University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Svetosimunska c. 25, Croatia.
| | - Zed Rengel
- The University of Western Australia, UWA School of Agriculture and Environment, Stirling Highway 35, Perth, W. Australia, Australia; Institute for Adriatic Crops and Karst Reclamation, Put Duilova 11, Split, Croatia
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Koralegedara NH, Pinto PX, Dionysiou DD, Al-Abed SR. Recent advances in flue gas desulfurization gypsum processes and applications - A review. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2019; 251:109572. [PMID: 31561139 PMCID: PMC7396127 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Flue gas desulfurization gypsum (FGDG) is an industrial by-product generated during the flue gas desulfurization process in coal-fired power plants. Due to its abundance, chemical and physical properties, FGDG has been used in several beneficial applications. However, during the past decade, the rate of beneficially used FGDG has gradually decreased, while its production has drastically increased. The presence of hazardous elements such as arsenic, mercury, cadmium, lead, and selenium in FGDG has reduced its beneficial value. Nevertheless, due to the recent developments in flue gas desulfurization processes, the "modern" FGDG contains lesser amounts of these elements, thus increasing its beneficial value and appeal to be included in other products. Hence, there are novel and traditional FGDG applications in different reuse scenarios investigated recently that have been deemed to pose minimal environmental concern - these need to be better understood. This review summarizes beneficial FGDG applications that have been deemed to pose minimal environmental concern, emphasizing their principles, research gaps, and potential developments, with the aim of increasing the reuse rate of FGDG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadeesha H Koralegedara
- Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, 20000, Sri Lanka
| | - Patricio X Pinto
- Pegasus Technical Services, Inc., 46 E. Hollister St, Cincinnati, OH, 45219, United States
| | - Dionysios D Dionysiou
- Department of Biomedical, Chemical and Environmental Engineering (DBCEE), 705 Engineering Research Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, 45221, United States
| | - Souhail R Al-Abed
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, 45268, United States.
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Liao R, Yu H, Lin H, Yang P. A quantitative study on three-dimensional pore parameters and physical properties of sodic soils restored by FGD gypsum and leaching water. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2019; 248:109303. [PMID: 31466180 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Revised: 07/06/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The application of flue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum has been recognized as a feasible measure in enhancing the quality of sodic soils. Quantitative evaluation of the effects of FGD gypsum on three-dimension (3D) pore characteristics is beneficial for understanding the reclamation mechanism of FGD gypsum on sodic soils. We collected intact soil cores from a sodic field at four depths (0-10, 10-20, 20-40, and 40-60 cm) in northern China to reconstruct 3D pore structures using X-ray computed tomography (CT), thus quantifying the effects of FGD gypsum (10.1 and 14.5 t hm-2) and leaching water (1520 and 2200 t hm-2) on the 3D pore characteristics and related soil physical properties. The treatments using FGD gypsum with leaching water promoted the formation of new pores and significantly (p < 0.05) increased the 3D image-based macroporosity, mesoporosity, total pore length, and number of nodes at depths of 0-20 cm, improving the permeability of sodic soils investigated, which is validated by the enhanced saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat). Irrigation water of 1520 t hm-2 is demonstrated effective in assisting FGD gypsum dissolution and leaching, but excessive leaching water (2200 t hm-2) may reduce the permeability of 20-40 cm depth. The combined application of 14.5 t hm-2 FGD gypsum and 1520 t hm-2 leaching water is suggested to obtain the optimal result for the investigated sodic soils. This study offers an applicable strategy for sodic soils reclamation and provides a reference for revealing the improvement mechanism of sodic soils by FGD gypsum and leaching water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renkuan Liao
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Simulation and Regulation of Water Cycles in River Basins, Department of Irrigation and Drainage, China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing, 100048, PR China
| | - Haoliang Yu
- Development Research Center of the Ministry of Water Resources of PR China, Beijing, 100038, PR China
| | - Henry Lin
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, United States
| | - Peiling Yang
- College of Water Resources & Civil Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, PR China.
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Liu W, Zheng J, Ou X, Liu X, Song Y, Tian C, Rong W, Shi Z, Dang Z, Lin Z. Effective Extraction of Cr(VI) from Hazardous Gypsum Sludge via Controlling the Phase Transformation and Chromium Species. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:13336-13342. [PMID: 30353724 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b02213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Through controlling the phase transformation and chromium species under hydrothermal condition, the Cr(VI) was extracted fully from hazardous Cr(VI)-containing gypsum sludge, with a very high efficiency of more than 99.5%. Scanning transmission electron microscopy, X-ray absorption fine structure, and density functional theory calculation results revealed that the dissolution-recrystallization of CaSO4·2H2O into CaSO4 was the key factor to fully release the encapsulated Cr(VI). Moreover, the mineralizer (persulfate salt) provided H+ and SO42- ions, the former made an acidic condition to transform the released CrO42- into the specie (Cr2O72-) with less similarity to SO42-, which further prevented the recombination of the released Cr(VI) with gypsum; and the latter was essential to accelerate crystal growth of calcium sulfate so as to enhance Cr(VI) extraction. This work would provide an instructive guidance to fully extract heavy metals from hazardous solid wastes via the control of crystal transformation and the pollutant species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weizhen Liu
- School of Environment and Energy , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou , 510006 , China
- The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters (Ministry of Education), Guangzhou , 510006 , China
| | - Jiayi Zheng
- School of Environment and Energy , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou , 510006 , China
- The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters (Ministry of Education), Guangzhou , 510006 , China
| | - Xinwen Ou
- School of Environment and Energy , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou , 510006 , China
| | - Xueming Liu
- School of Environment and Energy , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou , 510006 , China
- The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters (Ministry of Education), Guangzhou , 510006 , China
- Guangdong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Environmental Nanomaterials, Guangzhou , 510006 , China
| | - Yao Song
- School of Environment and Energy , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou , 510006 , China
- The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters (Ministry of Education), Guangzhou , 510006 , China
| | - Chen Tian
- School of Environment and Energy , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou , 510006 , China
- The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters (Ministry of Education), Guangzhou , 510006 , China
- Guangdong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Environmental Nanomaterials, Guangzhou , 510006 , China
| | - Wencong Rong
- Guangdong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Environmental Nanomaterials, Guangzhou , 510006 , China
| | - Zhenqing Shi
- School of Environment and Energy , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou , 510006 , China
- The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters (Ministry of Education), Guangzhou , 510006 , China
- Guangdong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Environmental Nanomaterials, Guangzhou , 510006 , China
| | - Zhi Dang
- School of Environment and Energy , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou , 510006 , China
- The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters (Ministry of Education), Guangzhou , 510006 , China
| | - Zhang Lin
- School of Environment and Energy , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou , 510006 , China
- The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters (Ministry of Education), Guangzhou , 510006 , China
- Guangdong Engineering and Technology Research Center for Environmental Nanomaterials, Guangzhou , 510006 , China
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The Effect of Co-Additives (Biochar and FGD Gypsum) on Ammonia Volatilization during the Composting of Livestock Waste. SUSTAINABILITY 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/su10030795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The effectiveness of co-additives for improving livestock waste composting (reduction of air pollution and conservation of nutrients) was investigated. Biochar and Flue gas desulphurization gypsum (FGD gypsum) were used to supplement the composting of a mixture of slaughter waste, swine slurry, and sawdust. Different compositions of additives (0% or 5% each, 10% biochar or FGD gypsum) were tested in triplicate on the laboratory scale. In addition, the effects of two different aeration schemes (continuous and intermittent) were also investigated. Ammonia volatilization, physicochemical characteristics, and compost maturity indices were investigated. The results indicated that the use of the co-additive (Biochar and FGD gypsum) during composting of livestock waste led to a reduction of ammonia volatilization by 26–59% and to a 6.7–7.9-fold increase of nitrate accumulation. The total ammonia volatilization of intermittent aeration treatment was lower than that of continuous aeration using co-additives treatment. It was concluded that co-additives (biochar and FGD gypsum) might be utilized in livestock waste composting to reduce ammonia volatilization and improve nutrient conservation.
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Koralegedara NH, Al-Abed SR, Rodrigo SK, Karna RR, Scheckel KG, Dionysiou DD. Alterations of lead speciation by sulfate from addition of flue gas desulfurization gypsum (FGDG) in two contaminated soils. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 575:1522-1529. [PMID: 27743653 PMCID: PMC7316141 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2016] [Revised: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
This is the first study to evaluate the potential application of FGDG as an in situ Pb stabilizer in contaminated soils with two different compositions and to explain the underlying mechanisms. A smelter Pb contaminated soil (SM-soil), rich in ferrihydrite bound Pb (FH-Pb), cerussite and litharge with a total Pb content of 65,123mg/kg and an organic matter rich orchard soil (BO-soil), rich in FH-Pb and humic acid bound Pb with a total Pb content of 1532mg/kg were amended with 5% FGDG (w/w). We subjected the two soils to three leaching tests; toxicity characteristic leaching protocol (TCLP), synthetic precipitation leaching protocol (SPLP), kinetic batch leaching test (KBLT) and in-vitro bioaccessibility assay (IVBA) in order to evaluate the FGDG amendment on Pb stabilization. Solid residues of original and FGDG amended soil were analyzed using X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) to identify changes in Pb speciation after each leaching test. The leachate Pb concentrations of FGDG amended soil were lower compared to those of in non-amended soil. The linear combination fitting analysis of XAS confirmed the formation of anglesite and leadhillite in FGDG amended soil. FGDG reduced the Pb desorption from ferrihydrite (FH), by forming FH-Pb-SO4 ternary complexes. FGDG decreased the Pb adsorption onto humic acid (HA) possibly due to the release of divalent cations such as Ca and Mg, which can compete with Pb to get adsorbed onto HA. The FGDG can successfully be used to remediate Pb contaminated soil. The efficiency of the treatment highly depends on the soil composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadeesha H Koralegedara
- Pegasus Technical Services, Inc., 46 E. Hollister St, Cincinnati, OH 45219, United States; Environmental Engineering and Science Program, Department of Biomedical, Chemical and Environmental Engineering (DBCEE), 705 Engineering Research Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0012, United States
| | - Souhail R Al-Abed
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH 45268, United States.
| | - Sanjeewa K Rodrigo
- Pegasus Technical Services, Inc., 46 E. Hollister St, Cincinnati, OH 45219, United States
| | - Ranju R Karna
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN 37831-0117, United States
| | - Kirk G Scheckel
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH 45268, United States
| | - Dionysios D Dionysiou
- Environmental Engineering and Science Program, Department of Biomedical, Chemical and Environmental Engineering (DBCEE), 705 Engineering Research Center, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0012, United States
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