Antioxidant Properties of Salvia officinalis Decoction Extract and Mechanism of Its Protective Effects on Ethanol-Induced Liver and Kidney Injuries

Alcohol spiked with zolpidem and midazolam potentiates inflammation, oxidative stress and organ damage in a mouse model

PURPOSE

Crime-related spiking of alcoholic drinks with prescription drugs is quite common and has been happening for centuries. This study, therefore, evaluated the effects of oral administration of alcohol spiked with the zolpidem and midazolam potent sedatives on inflammation, oxidative stress and various organ damage in male Swiss albino mice.

METHODS

Mice were randomly assigned into six treatment groups; the first group constituted the normal control, the second group received 50 mg/kg body weight of zolpidem only, the third group received 50 mg/kg body weight zolpidem dissolved in 5 g/kg alcohol, the fourth group received 50 mg/kg midazolam only, the fifth group received midazolam (50 mg/kg) dissolved in 5 g/kg alcohol and the sixth group received 5 g/kg alcohol.

RESULTS

Alcohol-induced significant reduction in neurological function and altered blood hematological indicators. Such neurological impairment and negative effects on blood were exacerbated in mice administered with spiked alcohol. Additionally, midazolam and zolpidem enhanced alcohol-driven elevation of liver function markers; the serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) gamma glutamyltransferase (GGT), total bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase. Exposure to alcohol and/or spiked alcohol led to significant augmentation of nitric oxide and malonaldehyde, with concomitant depletion of liver glutathione (GSH) levels. Similarly, serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha and interferon-gamma were increased by co-exposure with midazolam or zolpidem. Alcohol-induced hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity were amplified by exposure to alcohol spiked with midazolam/zolpidem.

CONCLUSION

Exposure to alcohol spiked with midazolam or zolpidem appears to exacerbate neurological deficits, inflammation, oxidative stress, and organ damage.

An Update on Recent Studies Focusing on the Antioxidant Properties of Salvia Species

Nutrition has crucial effects and a significant role in disease prevention. Recently, nutraceuticals have attracted much attention in scientific research due to their pleiotropic effects and relatively non-toxic behavior. Among the biological effects displayed by plants belonging to the Lamiaceae family, such as antibacterial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and anticholinesterase, sage is well known for its antioxidant properties and is a rich source of numerous compounds that are biologically active, amongst them polyphenols, with more than 160 types identified. In this review we summarized some of the significant studies published in the last decade reporting the most employed extraction methods and the different assays that are useful for establishing the antioxidant properties of some sage species. Even though the scientific literature contains plenty of data regarding the antioxidant properties of many sage species, further studies are needed in order to gain a deeper understanding of the mechanism of action and the compounds responsible for their antioxidant activity. Finally, it should be taken into account that the data on the antioxidant properties of sage extracts are often difficult to compare with each other, since a series of variables in the extraction procedures, the type of assay used, and standardization may affect the final result.

Natural Compounds of Salvia L. Genus and Molecular Mechanism of Their Biological Activity

The study of medicinal plants is important, as they are the natural reserve of potent biologically active compounds. With wide use in traditional medicine and the inclusion of several species (as parts and as a whole plant) in pharmacopeia, species from the genus Salvia L. are known for the broad spectrum of their biological activities. Studies suggest that these plants possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, anticancer, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antiangiogenic, hepatoprotective, cognitive and memory-enhancing effects. Phenolic acids, terpenoids and flavonoids are important phytochemicals, which are primarily responsible for the medicinal activity of Salvia L. This review collects and summarizes currently available data on the pharmacological properties of sage, outlining its principal physiologically active components, and it explores the molecular mechanism of their biological activity. Particular attention was given to the species commonly found in Kazakhstan, especially to Salvia trautvetteri Regel, which is native to this country.

Salvia officinalis flowers extract ameliorates liver and kidney injuries induced by simultaneous intoxication with ethanol/castor oil

The current study investigated the possible mechanisms of aqueous extract Salvia officinalis flowers (SF-AE) and its protective effects against hepatorenal toxicities produced by simultaneous acute administration of ethanol (EtOH)/castor oil (CO). Healthy male rats (N = 50) were separated into five equal groups: control, Ethanol (EtOH) + Castor oil (CO), doses of increasing orders of SF-AE (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg, b.w., p.o.) during 15 days. Liver and kidney injuries were induced by EtOH (4 g/kg, b.w., p.o.) combined with CO (5 mL/kg, b.w., p.o.). Compared to the control group, SF-AE pretreatment protected against simultaneous administration of EtOH and CO-caused serious histological alterations in liver and kidney tissues. SF-AE also reversed liver and kidney biochemical parameters and lipid profile alterations. More importantly, SF-AE significantly reduced the malondialdehyde (MDA) level and counteracted the depletion of both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. SF-AE also prevents against inflammation induced by EtOH combined with CO, expressed by the rise of inflammation biomarkers (C-reactive protein: CRP and alkaline phosphatase: ALP). Additionally, combined EtOH intoxication and CO poisoning exerted an increase in H2 O2 , free iron and calcium levels. Impressively, SF-AE treatment regulated levels of these studied intracellular mediators in a dose-dependent manner. In conclusion, SF-AE can potentially improve liver and kidney injuries associated with biochemical parameter deregulations, possibly by controlling oxidative stress and inflammation.

Hepato-Nephroprotective Actions of Salvia officinalis Decoction Extract Against Extraintestinal Alterations Induced with Acetic Acid-Colitis Model in Rats

Inflammatory bowel disease is associated with multiple extraintestinal disorders, including hepato-nephrological disruptions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the hepato-nephroprotective effect of Salvia officinalis leaf decoction extract (SLDE) on acetic acid (AA)-induced colitis accompanied with liver and kidney injuries. Wistar albinos rats were pretreated with SLDE (50, 100, and 200 mg kg^-1, b.w., p.o.) during 10 days and intoxicated for 24 h by acute rectal administration of AA (3%, v/v, 5 mL kg^-1, b.w.). Our results showed that S. officinalis treatment protected against AA-induced liver and kidney injuries by plasma transaminase activities and preservation of the hepatic and renal tissue structures. The level of high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol was also reverted back to near normalcy by treatment. Lipid peroxidation was decreased significantly by officinal sage supplementation. Treatment with SLDE increased enzymatic (superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase) and nonenzymatic (-SH groups and reduced glutathione) antioxidants in liver and kidney tissues. Also, SLDE treatment significantly protected against inflammation markers and reversed all intracellular mediator perturbations. This study suggests that the S. officinalis has a beneficial effect in controlling kidney and liver injuries by reducing lipid peroxidation and increasing antioxidant enzyme activities and nonenzymatic contents, which reduce the risk of developing extraintestinal complications.