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Ledbetter EC, Badanes ZI, Chan RX, Donohue LK, Hayot NL, Harman RM, Van de Walle GR, Mohammed HO. Comparative Efficacy of Topical Ophthalmic Ganciclovir and Oral Famciclovir in Cats with Experimental Ocular Feline Herpesvirus-1 Epithelial Infection. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 2022; 38:339-347. [PMID: 35613418 PMCID: PMC9242719 DOI: 10.1089/jop.2022.0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To determine the comparative efficacy of ganciclovir ophthalmic gel and famciclovir oral tablets in cats with experimentally induced ocular feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1) epithelial infection. Methods: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial was performed using 16 nonvaccinated, specific pathogen-free cats with experimental FHV-1 infection induced by topical ocular inoculation. Cats received topical ganciclovir 0.15% ophthalmic gel (1 drop 3 times daily, n = 6 cats), oral famciclovir (90 mg/kg twice daily, n = 6), or topical artificial tear gel (1 drop 3 times daily, n = 4) for 14 days. Cats were monitored after inoculation for 30 days. Ophthalmic examinations were performed every 2 days and ocular disease scores calculated. In vivo confocal microscopy was performed, and corneal leukocyte infiltrates quantified. Ocular samples for FHV-1 quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and virus isolation assays were collected every 3 days. Hemograms and serum biochemistry panels were performed at intervals. Results: Clinical ocular disease scores and corneal leukocyte infiltrates were significantly lower in the ganciclovir and famciclovir groups compared with placebo, but no significant differences were detected between the antiviral treatment groups. Ocular viral loads determined by qPCR were significantly lower in the ganciclovir group compared with the placebo group, but there were no significant differences between the other study groups. Hemograms and biochemistry panels were unremarkable. Conclusion: Topical application of ganciclovir gel 3 times daily was well-tolerated and displayed similar efficacy at reducing clinical ocular disease scores and corneal inflammation as twice daily oral famciclovir treatment in cats with experimental ocular FHV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric C. Ledbetter
- Department of Clinical Sciences and College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Zachary I. Badanes
- Department of Clinical Sciences and College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Remington X. Chan
- Department of Clinical Sciences and College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Laura K. Donohue
- Department of Clinical Sciences and College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Nathalie L. Hayot
- Department of Clinical Sciences and College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Rebecca M. Harman
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Gerlinde R. Van de Walle
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Hussni O. Mohammed
- Department of Population Medicine & Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
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Alling CR, Liu CC, Langohr IM, Haque M, Carter RT, Baker RE, Lewin AC. Assessment of Cidofovir for Treatment of Ocular Bovine Herpesvirus-1 Infection in Cattle Using an Ex-Vivo Model. Viruses 2021; 13:v13102102. [PMID: 34696532 PMCID: PMC8540818 DOI: 10.3390/v13102102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 10/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine herpesvirus-1 (BoHV-1) infection contributes to keratoconjunctivitis, respiratory disease, and reproductive losses in cattle. The objective of this study was to determine the most appropriate ophthalmic antiviral agent for BoHV-1 inhibition using in-vitro culture and novel ex-vivo bovine corneal modeling. Half-maximal inhibitory concentrations of BoHV-1 were determined for cidofovir, ganciclovir, idoxuridine, and trifluridine via in-vitro plaque reduction assays. In-vitro cytotoxicity was compared amongst these compounds via luciferase assays. Trifluridine and cidofovir were the most potent BoHV-1 inhibitors in vitro, while trifluridine and idoxuridine were the most cytotoxic agents. Therefore, cidofovir was the most potent non-cytotoxic agent and was employed in the ex-vivo corneal assay. Corneoscleral rings (n = 36) from fresh cadaver bovine globes were harvested and equally divided into an uninfected, untreated control group; a BoHV-1-infected, untreated group; and a BoHV-1-infected, cidofovir-treated group. Virus isolation for BoHV-1 titers was performed from corneal tissue and liquid media. Histologic measurements of corneal thickness, epithelial cell density, and tissue organization were compared between groups. Substantial BoHV-1 replication was observed in infected, untreated corneas, but BoHV-1 titer was significantly reduced in cidofovir-treated (1.69 ± 0.08 × 103 PFU/mL) versus untreated (8.25 ± 0.25 × 105 PFU/mL, p < 0.0001) tissues by day 2 of culture. No significant differences in histologic criteria were observed between groups. In conclusion, cidofovir warrants further investigation as treatment for BoHV-1 keratoconjunctivitis, with future studies needed to assess in-vivo tolerability and efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R. Alling
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA; (C.R.A.); (C.-C.L.); (R.T.C.); (R.E.B.)
| | - Chin-Chi Liu
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA; (C.R.A.); (C.-C.L.); (R.T.C.); (R.E.B.)
| | - Ingeborg M. Langohr
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA; (I.M.L.); (M.H.)
| | - Muzammel Haque
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA; (I.M.L.); (M.H.)
| | - Renee T. Carter
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA; (C.R.A.); (C.-C.L.); (R.T.C.); (R.E.B.)
| | - Rose E. Baker
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA; (C.R.A.); (C.-C.L.); (R.T.C.); (R.E.B.)
| | - Andrew C. Lewin
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA; (C.R.A.); (C.-C.L.); (R.T.C.); (R.E.B.)
- Correspondence:
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Spertus CB, Pennington MR, Van de Walle GR, Badanes ZI, Judd BE, Mohammed HO, Ledbetter EC. Effects of orally administered raltegravir in cats with experimentally induced ocular and respiratory feline herpesvirus-1 infection. Am J Vet Res 2019; 80:490-497. [PMID: 31034270 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.80.5.490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of orally administered raltegravir in cats with experimentally induced ocular and respiratory feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1) infection. ANIMALS 14 healthy 6-month-old unvaccinated specific pathogen-free cats. PROCEDURES On day 0, all cats were experimentally inoculated by topical application of 0.1 mL of a solution containing 106 plaque-forming units of FHV-1 strain FH2CS to the inferior conjunctival fornix of each eye. Cats were randomly assigned to receive either raltegravir (80 mg; n = 7) or lactose (250 mg; vehicle; 7), PO, every 12 hours for 14 days beginning on day 1. Cats were assigned clinical ocular and respiratory disease scores every other day from days 0 to 30. Conjunctival swab specimens were collected for detection of FHV-1 by virus isolation and real-time PCR assay at 3-day intervals from days 0 to 30. Confocal microscopy was performed on days 0 and 10 to assess corneal epithelial leukocyte infiltration. The assessed variables and duration of FHV-1 shedding were compared between the 2 treatment groups. RESULTS Cats in both groups developed moderate to severe conjunctivitis and ulcerative keratitis characteristic of FHV-1 infection. Median duration of FHV-1 shedding was shorter and signs of ocular and respiratory disease were less severe for raltegravir-treated cats than for vehicle-treated cats. However, the mean conjunctival FHV-1 titer and corneal epithelial leukocyte count did not differ between the 2 groups. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested orally administered raltegravir might be effective for alleviation of ocular and respiratory signs of FHV-1 infection in cats. (Am J Vet Res 2019;80:490-497).
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Schneider SM, Pritchard SM, Wudiri GA, Trammell CE, Nicola AV. Early Steps in Herpes Simplex Virus Infection Blocked by a Proteasome Inhibitor. mBio 2019; 10:e00732-19. [PMID: 31088925 PMCID: PMC6520451 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00732-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses commandeer host cell 26S proteasome activity to promote viral entry, gene expression, replication, assembly, and egress. Proteasomal degradation activity is critical for herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection. The proteasome inhibitor bortezomib (also known as Velcade and PS-341) is a clinically effective antineoplastic drug that is FDA approved for treatment of hematologic malignancies such as multiple myeloma and mantle cell lymphoma. Low nanomolar concentrations of bortezomib inhibited infection by HSV-1, HSV-2, and acyclovir-resistant strains. Inhibition coincided with minimal cytotoxicity. Bortezomib did not affect attachment of HSV to cells or inactivate the virus directly. Bortezomib acted early in HSV infection by perturbing two distinct proteasome-dependent steps that occur within the initial hours of infection: the transport of incoming viral nucleocapsids to the nucleus and the virus-induced disruption of host nuclear domain 10 (ND10) structures. The combination of bortezomib with acyclovir demonstrated synergistic inhibitory effects on HSV infection. Thus, bortezomib is a novel potential therapeutic for HSV with a defined mechanism of action.IMPORTANCE Viruses usurp host cell functions to advance their replicative agenda. HSV relies on cellular proteasome activity for successful infection. Proteasome inhibitors, such as MG132, block HSV infection at multiple stages of the infectious cycle. Targeting host cell processes for antiviral intervention is an unconventional approach that might limit antiviral resistance. Here we demonstrated that the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib, which is a clinically effective cancer drug, has the in vitro features of a promising anti-HSV therapeutic. Bortezomib inhibited HSV infection during the first hours of infection at nanomolar concentrations that were minimally cytotoxic. The mechanism of bortezomib's inhibition of early HSV infection was to halt nucleocapsid transport to the nucleus and to stabilize the ND10 cellular defense complex. Bortezomib and acyclovir acted synergistically to inhibit HSV infection. Overall, we present evidence for the repurposing of bortezomib as a novel antiherpesviral agent and describe specific mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth M Schneider
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Suzanne M Pritchard
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - George A Wudiri
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Chasity E Trammell
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Anthony V Nicola
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
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Ledbetter EC, Nicklin AM, Spertus CB, Pennington MR, Van de Walle GR, Mohammed HO. Evaluation of topical ophthalmic ganciclovir gel for the treatment of dogs with experimentally induced ocular canine herpesvirus-1 infection. Am J Vet Res 2018; 79:762-769. [PMID: 29943639 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.79.7.762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the in vitro half maximal effective concentration (EC50) of ganciclovir for canine herpesvirus-1 (CHV-1) and to evaluate the efficacy of ganciclovir ophthalmic gel in dogs with experimentally induced ocular CHV-1 infection. ANIMALS 10 specific pathogen-free adult Beagles. PROCEDURES Cytotoxicity and EC50 of ganciclovir for CHV-1 were determined during in vitro experiments. During an in vivo experiment, dogs with experimentally induced ocular CHV-1 infections received 1 drop of 0.15% ganciclovir (ganciclovir group; n = 5) or artificial tear (control group; 5) ophthalmic gel in both eyes 5 times daily for 7 days, then 3 times daily for 7 days. For each dog, ophthalmic and confocal microscopic examinations were performed at predetermined times to determine severity of ocular disease and inflammation. Conjunctival swab specimens were collected at predetermined times for PCR assay analysis to determine CHV-1 shedding. RESULTS No in vitro cytotoxic effects were observed for ganciclovir concentrations ≤ 500μM. The EC50 of ganciclovir for CHV-1 was 37.7μM. No adverse effects associated with ganciclovir were observed during the in vivo experiment. Mean ocular disease and inflammation scores for the ganciclovir group were significantly lower than those for the control group. Mean duration of CHV-1 shedding for the ganciclovir group (0.4 days) was significantly shorter than that for the control group (6.2 days). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Topical administration of 0.15% ganciclovir ophthalmic gel was well tolerated and effective in decreasing clinical disease scores, ocular tissue inflammation, and duration of viral shedding in dogs with experimentally induced ocular CHV-1 infection.
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Pennington MR, Ledbetter EC, Van de Walle GR. New Paradigms for the Study of Ocular Alphaherpesvirus Infections: Insights into the Use of Non-Traditional Host Model Systems. Viruses 2017; 9:E349. [PMID: 29156583 PMCID: PMC5707556 DOI: 10.3390/v9110349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 11/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocular herpesviruses, most notably human alphaherpesvirus 1 (HSV-1), canid alphaherpesvirus 1 (CHV-1) and felid alphaherpesvirus 1 (FHV-1), infect and cause severe disease that may lead to blindness. CHV-1 and FHV-1 have a pathogenesis and induce clinical disease in their hosts that is similar to HSV-1 ocular infections in humans, suggesting that infection of dogs and cats with CHV-1 and FHV-1, respectively, can be used as a comparative natural host model of herpesvirus-induced ocular disease. In this review, we discuss both strengths and limitations of the various available model systems to study ocular herpesvirus infection, with a focus on the use of these non-traditional virus-natural host models. Recent work has demonstrated the robustness and reproducibility of experimental ocular herpesvirus infections in dogs and cats, and, therefore, these non-traditional models can provide additional insights into the pathogenesis of ocular herpesvirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Pennington
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - Eric C Ledbetter
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - Gerlinde R Van de Walle
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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Spertus CB, Mohammed HO, Ledbetter EC. Effects of topical ocular application of 1% trifluridine ophthalmic solution in dogs with experimentally induced recurrent ocular canine herpesvirus-1 infection. Am J Vet Res 2016; 77:1140-7. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.77.10.1140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Taylor KR, Panday VA, Caldwell MC, Petroll WM, Apsey DA, Reilly CD. Immunomodulatory therapy with anti-interleukin-1 after photorefractive keratectomy in the New Zealand white rabbit. J Cataract Refract Surg 2016; 42:913-9. [PMID: 27373399 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrs.2016.02.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2015] [Revised: 01/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To examine the safety and efficacy of topical anti-interleukin-1 (anti-IL-1) following photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) in rabbit eyes. SETTING Joint Warfighter Refractive Surgery Center, Lackland Air Force Base, Texas, USA. DESIGN Experimental study. METHODS After standard PRK, 48 eyes of 24 New Zealand white rabbits were divided into 4 treatment arms and 1 control arm. Eyes in the treatment arms were randomized to receive fluorometholone 0.1% or an anti-IL-1 suspension (2.50 mg, 1.25 mg, or 0.25 mg doses) plus standard moxifloxacin, balanced salt solution (BSS), and an ocular lubricant (Systane) 4 times a day. Control eyes received only moxifloxacin, balanced salt solution, and ocular lubricant. RESULTS No adverse events were observed with anti-IL-1. The safety of anti-IL-1 was affirmed because there was no statistically significant difference in time to epithelial closure, foam-layer histology and thickness, or final stromal thickness measurements between the anti-IL-1 and the steroid or control groups. No increase in haze was observed with anti-IL-1. There was a trend toward decreased haze with anti-IL-1 at several data points compared with the control and steroid groups. Finally, there was a trend toward less haze in all metrics at almost every timepoint for the 2.50 mg anti-IL-1 group compared with lesser concentrations. CONCLUSIONS Anti-IL-1 therapy might be a safe, effective alternative to steroids for haze prevention after PRK. Of the doses studied, 2.50 mg of anti-IL-1 4 times a day appeared to be most effective. Further studies in human eyes are needed. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE Dr. Reilly has been a consultant to Alcon Laboratories, Inc., and Abbott Medical Optics, Inc. None of the authors has a financial or proprietary interest in any material or method mentioned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth R Taylor
- From the Department of Flight Medicine (Taylor), 14th Medical Group, Columbus Air Force Base, Mississippi, Wilford Hall Ambulatory Surgical Center (Panday, Caldwell, Apsey, Reilly), Lackland Air Force Base, Texas, and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center (Petroll), Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Vasudha A Panday
- From the Department of Flight Medicine (Taylor), 14th Medical Group, Columbus Air Force Base, Mississippi, Wilford Hall Ambulatory Surgical Center (Panday, Caldwell, Apsey, Reilly), Lackland Air Force Base, Texas, and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center (Petroll), Dallas, Texas, USA.
| | - Matthew C Caldwell
- From the Department of Flight Medicine (Taylor), 14th Medical Group, Columbus Air Force Base, Mississippi, Wilford Hall Ambulatory Surgical Center (Panday, Caldwell, Apsey, Reilly), Lackland Air Force Base, Texas, and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center (Petroll), Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - W Matthew Petroll
- From the Department of Flight Medicine (Taylor), 14th Medical Group, Columbus Air Force Base, Mississippi, Wilford Hall Ambulatory Surgical Center (Panday, Caldwell, Apsey, Reilly), Lackland Air Force Base, Texas, and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center (Petroll), Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Douglas A Apsey
- From the Department of Flight Medicine (Taylor), 14th Medical Group, Columbus Air Force Base, Mississippi, Wilford Hall Ambulatory Surgical Center (Panday, Caldwell, Apsey, Reilly), Lackland Air Force Base, Texas, and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center (Petroll), Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Charles D Reilly
- From the Department of Flight Medicine (Taylor), 14th Medical Group, Columbus Air Force Base, Mississippi, Wilford Hall Ambulatory Surgical Center (Panday, Caldwell, Apsey, Reilly), Lackland Air Force Base, Texas, and the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center (Petroll), Dallas, Texas, USA
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Pennington MR, Fort MW, Ledbetter EC, Van de Walle GR. A novel corneal explant model system to evaluate antiviral drugs against feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1). J Gen Virol 2016; 97:1414-1425. [PMID: 26959283 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Feline herpesvirus type-1 (FHV-1) is the most common viral cause of ocular surface disease in cats. Many antiviral drugs are used to treat FHV-1, but require frequent topical application and most lack well-controlled in vivo studies to justify their clinical use. Therefore, better validation of current and novel treatment options are urgently needed. Here, we report on the development of a feline whole corneal explant model that supports FHV-1 replication and thus can be used as a novel model system to evaluate the efficacy of antiviral drugs. The anti-herpes nucleoside analogues cidofovir and acyclovir, which are used clinically to treat ocular herpesvirus infection in cats and have previously been evaluated in traditional two-dimensional feline cell cultures in vitro, were evaluated in this explant model. Both drugs suppressed FHV-1 replication when given every 12 h, with cidofovir showing greater efficacy. In addition, the potential efficacy of the retroviral integrase inhibitor raltegravir against FHV-1 was evaluated in cell culture as well as in the explant model. Raltegravir was not toxic to feline cells or corneas, and most significantly, inhibited FHV-1 replication at 500 µM in both systems. Importantly, this drug was effective when given only once every 24 h. Taken together, our data indicate that the feline whole corneal explant model is a useful tool for the evaluation of antiviral drugs and, furthermore, that raltegravir appears a promising novel antiviral drug to treat ocular herpesvirus infection in cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Pennington
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853, United States
| | - Michael W Fort
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853, United States
| | - Eric C Ledbetter
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853, United States
| | - Gerlinde R Van de Walle
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853, United States
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