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Suzuki H, Ohishi T, Tanaka T, Kaneko MK, Kato Y. A Cancer-Specific Monoclonal Antibody against Podocalyxin Exerted Antitumor Activities in Pancreatic Cancer Xenografts. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:161. [PMID: 38203331 PMCID: PMC10779310 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Podocalyxin (PODXL) overexpression is associated with poor clinical outcomes in various tumors. PODXL is involved in tumor malignant progression through the promotion of invasiveness and metastasis. Therefore, PODXL is considered a promising target of monoclonal antibody (mAb)-based therapy. However, PODXL also plays an essential role in normal cells, such as vascular and lymphatic endothelial cells. Therefore, cancer specificity or selectivity is required to reduce adverse effects on normal cells. Here, we developed an anti-PODXL cancer-specific mAb (CasMab), PcMab-6 (IgG1, kappa), by immunizing mice with a soluble PODXL ectodomain derived from a glioblastoma LN229 cell. PcMab-6 reacted with the PODXL-positive LN229 cells but not with PODXL-knockout LN229 cells in flow cytometry. Importantly, PcMab-6 recognized pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cell lines (MIA PaCa-2, Capan-2, and PK-45H) but did not react with normal lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs). In contrast, one of the non-CasMabs, PcMab-47, showed high reactivity to both the PDAC cell lines and LECs. Next, we engineered PcMab-6 into a mouse IgG2a-type (PcMab-6-mG2a) and a humanized IgG1-type (humPcMab-6) mAb and further produced the core fucose-deficient types (PcMab-6-mG2a-f and humPcMab-6-f, respectively) to potentiate the antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). Both PcMab-6-mG2a-f and humPcMab-6-f exerted ADCC and complement-dependent cellular cytotoxicity in the presence of effector cells and complements, respectively. In the PDAC xenograft model, both PcMab-6-mG2a-f and humPcMab-6-f exhibited potent antitumor effects. These results indicated that humPcMab-6-f could apply to antibody-based therapy against PODXL-expressing pancreatic cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Suzuki
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (T.T.); (M.K.K.)
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Tomokazu Ohishi
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, 18-24 Miyamoto, Numazu-shi 410-0301, Japan;
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Laboratory of Oncology, Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 141-0021, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Tanaka
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (T.T.); (M.K.K.)
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Mika K. Kaneko
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (T.T.); (M.K.K.)
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (T.T.); (M.K.K.)
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
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Ishida K, Yagi H, Kato Y, Morita E. N-linked glycosylation of flavivirus E protein contributes to viral particle formation. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011681. [PMID: 37819933 PMCID: PMC10593244 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
In the case of the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), the envelope protein (E), a major component of viral particles, contains a highly conserved N-linked glycosylation site (E: N154). Glycosylation of the E protein is thought to play an important role in the ability of the virus to attach to target cells during transmission; however, its role in viral particle formation and release remains poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the role of N-glycosylation of flaviviral structural proteins in viral particle formation and secretion by introducing mutations in viral structural proteins or cellular factors involved in glycoprotein transport and processing. The number of secreted subviral particles (SVPs) was significantly reduced in N154A, a glycosylation-null mutant, but increased in D67N, a mutant containing additional glycosylation sites, indicating that the amount of E glycosylation regulates the release of SVPs. SVP secretion was reduced in cells deficient in galactose, sialic acid, and N-acetylglucosamine modifications in the Golgi apparatus; however, these reductions were not significant, suggesting that glycosylation mainly plays a role in pre-Golgi transport. Fluorescent labeling of SVPs using a split green fluorescent protein (GFP) system and time-lapse imaging by retention using selective hooks (RUSH) system revealed that the glycosylation-deficient mutant was arrested before endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- Golgi transport. However, the absence of ERGIC-53 and ERGIC-L, ER-Golgi transport cargo receptors that recognize sugar chains on cargo proteins, does not impair SVP secretion. In contrast, the solubility of the N154A mutant of E or the N15A/T17A mutant of prM in cells was markedly lower than that of the wild type, and proteasome-mediated rapid degradation of these mutants was observed, indicating the significance of glycosylation of both prM and E in proper protein folding and assembly of viral particles in the ER.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kotaro Ishida
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, Japan
- Division of Biomolecular Function, Bioresources Science, United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Iwate University, Morioka, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Yagi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Japan
- Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems (ExCELLS), National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Eiji Morita
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, Japan
- Division of Biomolecular Function, Bioresources Science, United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Iwate University, Morioka, Japan
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3
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A cancer-specific anti-podocalyxin monoclonal antibody (60-mG 2a-f) exerts antitumor effects in mouse xenograft models of pancreatic carcinoma. Biochem Biophys Rep 2020; 24:100826. [PMID: 33088928 PMCID: PMC7559861 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2020.100826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Overexpression of podocalyxin (PODXL) is associated with progression, metastasis, and poor outcomes in several cancers. PODXL also plays an important role in the development of normal tissues. For antibody-based therapy to target PODXL-expressing cancers using monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), cancer-specificity is necessary to reduce the risk of adverse effects to normal tissues. In this study, we developed an anti-PODXL cancer-specific mAb (CasMab), named as PcMab-60 (IgM, kappa) by immunizing mice with soluble PODXL, which is overexpressed in LN229 glioblastoma cells. The PcMab-60 reacted with the PODXL-overexpressing LN229 (LN229/PODXL) cells and MIA PaCa-2 pancreatic cancer cells in flow cytometry but did not react with normal vascular endothelial cells (VECs), whereas one of non-CasMabs, PcMab-47 showed high reactivity for not only LN229/PODXL and MIA PaCa-2 cells but also VECs, indicating that PcMab-60 is a CasMab. Next, we engineered PcMab-60 into a mouse IgG2a-type mAb, named as 60-mG2a, to add antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). We further developed a core fucose-deficient type of 60-mG2a, named as 60-mG2a-f, to augment its ADCC activity. In vivo analysis revealed that 60-mG2a-f exerted antitumor activity in MIA PaCa-2 xenograft models at a dose of 100 μg/mouse/week administered three times. These results suggested that 60-mG2a-f could be useful for antibody-based therapy against PODXL-expressing pancreatic cancers. PODXL is associated with poor outcomes in several cancers. We developed an anti-PODXL cancer-specific mAb (PcMab-60). A core fucose-deficient IgG2a type of PcMab-60 (60-mG2a-f) exerted antitumor activity in MIA PaCa-2 xenograft models. 60-mG2a-f could be useful for antibody-based therapy against PODXL-expressing pancreatic cancers.
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Schulten HJ, Hussein D. Array expression meta-analysis of cancer stem cell genes identifies upregulation of PODXL especially in DCC low expression meningiomas. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215452. [PMID: 31083655 PMCID: PMC6513070 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Meningiomas are the most common intracranial tumors, with a subset of cases bearing a progressive phenotype. The DCC netrin 1 receptor (DCC) is a candidate gene for early meningioma progression. Cancer stem cell (CSC) genes are emerging as cancer therapeutic targets, as their expression is frequently associated with aggressive tumor phenotypes. The main objective of the study was to identify deregulated CSC genes in meningiomas. MATERIALS AND METHODS Interrogating two expression data repositories, significantly differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were determined using DCC low vs. DCC high expression groups and WHO grade I (GI) vs. grade II + grade III (GII + GIII) comparison groups. Human stem cell (SC) genes were compiled from two published data sets and were extracted from the DEG lists. Biofunctional analysis was performed to assess associations between genes or molecules. RESULTS In the DCC low vs. DCC high expression groups, we assessed seven studies representing each between seven and 58 samples. The type I transmembrane protein podocalyxin like (PODXL) was markedly upregulated in DCC low expression meningiomas in six studies. Other CSC genes repeatedly deregulated included, e.g., BMP/retinoic acid inducible neural specific 1 (BRINP1), prominin 1 (PROM1), solute carrier family 24 member 3 (SLC24A3), rRho GTPase activating protein 28 (ARHGAP28), Kruppel like factor 5 (KLF5), and leucine rich repeat containing G protein-coupled receptor 4 (LGR4). In the GI vs. GII + GIII comparison groups, we assessed six studies representing each between nine and 68 samples. DNA topoisomerase 2-alpha (TOP2A) was markedly upregulated in GII + GIII meningiomas in four studies. Other CSC genes repeatedly deregulated included, e.g., ARHGAP28 and PODXL. Network analysis revealed associations of molecules with, e.g., cellular development and movement; nervous system development and function; and cancer. CONCLUSIONS This meta-analysis on meningiomas identified a comprehensive list of deregulated CSC genes across different array expression studies. Especially, PODXL is of interest for functional assessment in progressive meningiomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Juergen Schulten
- Center of Excellence in Genomic Medicine Research, Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- * E-mail:
| | - Deema Hussein
- King Fahad Medical Research Center, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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Itai S, Yamada S, Kaneko MK, Sano M, Nakamura T, Yanaka M, Handa S, Hisamatsu K, Nakamura Y, Furusawa Y, Fukui M, Ohishi T, Kawada M, Harada H, Kato Y. Podocalyxin is crucial for the growth of oral squamous cell carcinoma cell line HSC-2. Biochem Biophys Rep 2018; 15:93-96. [PMID: 30105309 PMCID: PMC6086321 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2018.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Oral cancers constitute approximately 2% of all cancers, with the most common histological type being oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), representing 90% of oral cancers. Although diagnostic technologies and therapeutic techniques have progressed, the survival rate of patients with OSCC is still 60%, whereas the incidence rate has increased. Podocalyxin (PODXL) is a highly glycosylated type I transmembrane protein that is detected in normal tissues such as heart, breast, and pancreas as well as in many cancers, including lung, renal, breast, colorectal, and oral cancers. This glycoprotein is associated with the progression, metastasis, and poor outcomes of oral cancers. PODXL overexpression was strongly detected using our previously established anti-PODXL monoclonal antibody (mAb), PcMab-47, and its mouse IgG2a-type, 47-mG2a. In previous studies, we also generated PODXL-knock out (PODXL-KO) cell lines using SAS OSCC cell lines, in order to investigate the function of PODXL in the proliferation of oral cancer cells. The growth of SAS/PODXL-KO cell lines was observed to be lower than that of parental SAS cells. For this study, PODXL-KO OSCC cell lines were generated using HSC-2 cells, and the role of PODXL in the growth of OSCC cell lines in vitro was assessed. Decreased growth was observed for HSC-2/PODXL-KO cells compared with HSC-2 parental cells. The influence of PODXL on tumor growth of OSCC was also investigated in vivo, and both the tumor volume and the tumor weight were observed to be significantly lower for HSC-2/PODXL-KO than that for HSC-2 parental cells. These results, taken together, indicate that PODXL plays an important role in tumor growth, both in vitro and in vivo. PODXL-knock out cell lines were established using HSC-2. The growth of HSC-2/PODXL-KO cells were lower than that of parental HSC-2. Tumor volumes of HSC-2/PODXL-KO cells were lower than that of HSC-2. PODXL has an important role in tumor growth in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunsuke Itai
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan.,Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45, Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Shinji Yamada
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Mika K Kaneko
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Masato Sano
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Takuro Nakamura
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Miyuki Yanaka
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Saori Handa
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Kayo Hisamatsu
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yoshimi Nakamura
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Furusawa
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan.,New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, 2-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan.,ZENOAQ RESOURCE CO., LTD., 1-1 Tairanoue, Sasagawa, Asaka-machi, Koriyama, Fukushima 963-0196, Japan
| | - Masato Fukui
- ZENOAQ RESOURCE CO., LTD., 1-1 Tairanoue, Sasagawa, Asaka-machi, Koriyama, Fukushima 963-0196, Japan
| | - Tomokazu Ohishi
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Numazu, Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, 18-24 Miyamoto, Numazu, Shizuoka 410-0301, Japan
| | - Manabu Kawada
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Numazu, Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, 18-24 Miyamoto, Numazu, Shizuoka 410-0301, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Harada
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45, Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan.,New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, 2-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
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Anti-podocalyxin antibody exerts antitumor effects via antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity in mouse xenograft models of oral squamous cell carcinoma. Oncotarget 2018; 9:22480-22497. [PMID: 29854293 PMCID: PMC5976479 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.25132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Podocalyxin (PODXL) overexpression is associated with progression, metastasis, and poor outcomes in cancers. We recently produced the novel anti-PODXL monoclonal antibody (mAb) PcMab-47 (IgG1, kappa). Herein, we engineered PcMab-47 into 47-mG2a, a mouse IgG2a-type mAb, to add antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). We further developed 47-mG2a-f, a core fucose-deficient type of 47-mG2a to augment its ADCC. Immunohistochemical analysis of oral cancer tissues using PcMab-47 and 47-mG2a revealed that the latter stained oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells in a cytoplasmic pattern at a much lower concentration. PcMab-47 and 47-mG2a detected PODXL in 163/201 (81.1%) and in 197/201 (98.0%) OSCC samples, respectively. 47-mG2a-f also detected PODXL in OSCCs at a similar frequency as 47-mG2a. In vitro analysis revealed that both 47-mG2a and 47-mG2a-f exhibited strong complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) against CHO/hPODXL cells. In contrast, 47-mG2a-f exhibited much stronger ADCC than 47-mG2a against OSCC cells, indicating that ADCC and CDC of those anti-PODXL mAbs depend on target cells. In vivo analysis revealed that both 47-mG2a and 47-mG2a-f exerted antitumor activity in CHO/hPODXL xenograft models at a dose of 100 μg or 500 μg/mouse/week administered twice. 47-mG2a-f, but not 47-mG2a, exerted antitumor activity in SAS and HSC-2 xenograft models at a dose of 100 μg/mouse/week administered three times. Although both 47-mG2a and 47-mG2a-f exerted antitumor activity in HSC-2 xenograft models at a dose of 500 μg/mouse/week administered twice, 47-mG2a-f also showed higher antitumor activity than 47-mG2a. These results suggested that a core fucose-deficient anti-PODXL mAb could be useful for antibody-based therapy against PODXL-expressing OSCCs.
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Itai S, Yamada S, Kaneko MK, Kato Y. Determination of critical epitope of PcMab-47 against human podocalyxin. Biochem Biophys Rep 2018; 14:78-82. [PMID: 29872738 PMCID: PMC5986553 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2018.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Podocalyxin (PODXL) is a type I transmembrane protein, which is highly glycosylated. PODXL is expressed in some types of human cancer tissues including oral, breast, and lung cancer tissues and may promote tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. We previously produced PcMab-47, a novel anti-PODXL monoclonal antibody (mAb) which reacts with endogenous PODXL-expressing cancer cell lines and normal cells independently of glycosylation in Western blot, flow cytometry, and immunohistochemical analysis. In this study, we used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), flow cytometry, and immunohistochemical analysis to determine the epitope of PcMab-47. The minimum epitope of PcMab-47 was found to be Asp207, His208, Leu209, and Met210. A blocking peptide containing this minimum epitope completely neutralized PcMab-47 reaction against oral cancer cells by flow cytometry and immunohistochemical analysis. These findings could lead to the production of more functional anti-PODXL mAbs, which are advantageous for antitumor activities. PODXL is involved in cancer growth, invasion, and metastasis. PcMab-47 mAb against PODXL shows high ADCC/CDC and antitumor activities. PcMab-47 epitope was determined to be Asp207, His208, Leu209, and Met210. A blocking peptide completely neutralized PcMab-47 reaction by FCM and IHC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunsuke Itai
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Shinji Yamada
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Mika K Kaneko
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan.,New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, 2-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan
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Yamada S, Itai S, Kaneko MK, Kato Y. Anti-Podocalyxin Monoclonal Antibody 47-mG 2a Detects Lung Cancers by Immunohistochemistry. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2018; 37:91-94. [PMID: 29649375 DOI: 10.1089/mab.2018.0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths in the world. Regardless of the advances in lung cancer treatments, the prognosis is still poor. Podocalyxin (PODXL) is a highly glycosylated type I transmembrane protein that is expressed in normal tissues, including the heart, pancreas, and breast. It is also found and used as a diagnostic marker in many cancers, such as renal, brain, breast, oral, and lung cancers. We previously developed specific and sensitive anti-PODXL monoclonal antibodies, PcMab-47 (mouse IgG1, kappa) and its mouse IgG2a-type (47-mG2a), both of which were suitable for immunohistochemical analyses of oral cancers. In this study, we investigated the utility of PcMab-47 and 47-mG2a for the immunohistochemical analyses of lung cancers. PcMab-47 stained 51/70 (72.9%) cases of lung cancer, whereas 47-mG2a stained 59/70 (84.3%) cases, indicating that the latter antibody is more sensitive and is useful for detecting PODXL in lung cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Yamada
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Itai
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan
| | - Mika K Kaneko
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan
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9
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Kaneko MK, Itai S, Yamada S, Kato Y. 47-mG 2a: A Mouse IgG 2a-Type of PcMab-47 Useful for Detecting Podocalyxin in Esophageal Cancers by Immunohistochemistry. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2018; 37:158-161. [PMID: 29630446 DOI: 10.1089/mab.2018.0003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Esophageal cancer is one of the highly malignant cancers. It comprises two of the most common histological tumor types: squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and adenocarcinoma. SCC accounts for about 90% of esophageal cancers. Despite developments in treatment strategies, the prognosis and survival rate remain poor. Podocalyxin (PODXL) is a highly glycosylated type-I transmembrane protein. It is expressed in normal tissues such as kidney, heart, breast, and pancreas. Upregulation of PODXL correlates with tumor progression, invasion, and metastasis. Therefore, this glycoprotein could be a potential biomarker for predicting the prognosis of some cancers, for instance, brain, colorectal, oral, lung, bladder, prostate, and ovarian cancers. We previously developed a specific and sensitive anti-PODXL monoclonal antibody (mAb), PcMab-47 (mouse IgG1, kappa) and its mouse IgG2a-type (47-mG2a). We showed their utility in immunohistochemical analysis of oral cancers. Herein, we demonstrate that PcMab-47 and 47-mG2a can also be used to detect esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) with this technique. These two antibodies, respectively, stained 123/130 (94.6%) and 127/130 (97.7%) ESCC cases, indicating that they can detect PODXL with high sensitivity in this carcinoma. Of more than 3+ cases, 47-mG2a was more effective than PcMab-47, respectively, staining 56/127 (44.1%) and 41/123 (33.3%). Therefore, 47-mG2a can be used for the detection of PODXL in ESCC using immunohistochemical analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mika K Kaneko
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Itai
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan
| | - Shinji Yamada
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan
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Itai S, Yamada S, Kaneko MK, Chang YW, Harada H, Kato Y. Establishment of EMab-134, a Sensitive and Specific Anti-Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Monoclonal Antibody for Detecting Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cells of the Oral Cavity. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2017; 36:272-281. [PMID: 29090976 PMCID: PMC6975130 DOI: 10.1089/mab.2017.0042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), a receptor tyrosine kinase, activates downstream signaling cascades in many tumors. In this study, we established novel anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and characterized their efficacy in flow cytometry, Western blot, and immunohistochemical analyses. We immunized mice with a combination of the extracellular domain of EGFR and EGFR-overexpressing LN229 glioblastoma cells (LN229/EGFR) and performed the first screening using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Next, we selected mAbs using flow cytometry. Among 156 established clones, two mAbs, EMab-51 (IgG1, kappa) and EMab-134 (IgG1, kappa), reacted with EGFR in Western blot analysis; EMab-134 showed a much higher sensitivity compared with EMab-51. We compared the binding affinities of EMab-51 and EMab-134 using flow cytometry; the calculated KD values for EMab-51 and EMab-134 against SAS cells/HSC-2 cells were 9.2 × 10−9 M/9.9 × 10−9 M and 2.6 × 10−9 M/8.3 × 10−9 M, respectively, indicating that EMab-134 has a higher affinity to EGFR-expressing cells. Immunohistochemical analysis of EMab-51 and EMab-134 showed sensitive and specific reactions against oral cancer cells; EMab-134 demonstrated a much higher sensitivity (36/38 cases; 94.7%) to oral squamous cell carcinomas compared with EMab-51 (6/38 cases; 15.8%). This novel anti-EGFR mAb, EMab-134, could be advantageous for detecting EGFR in the pathological analysis of EGFR-expressing cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunsuke Itai
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan .,2 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shinji Yamada
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan
| | - Mika K Kaneko
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan
| | - Yao-Wen Chang
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Harada
- 2 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Sendai, Japan .,3 New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University , Sendai, Japan
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11
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Itai S, Kaneko MK, Fujii Y, Yamada S, Nakamura T, Yanaka M, Saidoh N, Handa S, Chang YW, Suzuki H, Harada H, Kato Y. Development of EMab-51, a Sensitive and Specific Anti-Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Monoclonal Antibody in Flow Cytometry, Western Blot, and Immunohistochemistry. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2017; 36:214-219. [PMID: 28891752 PMCID: PMC7001460 DOI: 10.1089/mab.2017.0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a member of the human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER) family of receptor tyrosine kinases and is involved in cell growth and differentiation. EGFR homodimers or heterodimers with other HER members, such as HER2 and HER3, activate downstream signaling cascades in many cancers. In this study, we developed novel anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and characterized their efficacy in flow cytometry, Western blot, and immunohistochemical analyses. First, we expressed the full-length or ectodomain of EGFR in LN229 glioblastoma cells and then immunized mice with LN229/EGFR or ectodomain of EGFR, and performed the first screening using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Subsequently, we selected mAbs according to their efficacy in flow cytometry (second screening), Western blot (third screening), and immunohistochemical (fourth screening) analyses. Among 100 mAbs, only one clone EMab-51 (IgG1, kappa) reacted with EGFR in Western blot analysis. Finally, immunohistochemical analyses with EMab-51 showed sensitive and specific reactions against oral cancer cells, warranting the use of EMab-51 to detect EGFR in pathological analyses of EGFR-expressing cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunsuke Itai
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mika K. Kaneko
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Yuki Fujii
- Department of Regional Innovation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Shinji Yamada
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Takuro Nakamura
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Miyuki Yanaka
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Noriko Saidoh
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Saori Handa
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Yao-Wen Chang
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Hiroyoshi Suzuki
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Sendai Medical Center, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Harada
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
- Department of Regional Innovation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Miyagi, Japan
- New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Miyagi, Japan
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12
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Itai S, Yamada S, Kaneko MK, Harada H, Kato Y. Immunohistochemical Analysis Using Antipodocalyxin Monoclonal Antibody PcMab-47 Demonstrates Podocalyxin Expression in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinomas. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2017; 36:220-223. [PMID: 28873000 DOI: 10.1089/mab.2017.0030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Podocalyxin is a CD34-related type I transmembrane protein that is highly glycosylated with N-glycan, O-glycan, and keratan sulfate. Podocalyxin was originally found in the podocytes of rat kidney and is reportedly expressed in many types of tumors, including brain tumors, colorectal cancers, and breast cancers. Overexpression of podocalyxin is an independent predictor of progression, metastasis, and poor outcome. We recently immunized mice with recombinant human podocalyxin, which was produced using LN229 glioblastoma cells, and produced a novel antipodocalyxin monoclonal antibody (mAb), PcMab-47, which reacts with endogenous podocalyxin-expressing cancer cell lines and normal cell lines independent of glycosylation in Western blot, flow cytometry, and immunohistochemical analyses. In this study, we performed immunohistochemical analysis against oral cancers using PcMab-47. PcMab-47-stained oral squamous cell carcinoma cells in a cytoplasmic pattern and detected 26/38 (68.4%) of oral squamous cell carcinoma cells on tissue microarrays. These results indicate that PcMab-47 is useful in detecting podocalyxin of oral cancers for immunohistochemical analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunsuke Itai
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Miyagi, Japan .,2 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shinji Yamada
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Miyagi, Japan
| | - Mika K Kaneko
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Miyagi, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Harada
- 2 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Miyagi, Japan .,3 New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University , Miyagi, Japan
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13
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Itai S, Fujii Y, Kaneko MK, Yamada S, Nakamura T, Yanaka M, Saidoh N, Chang YW, Handa S, Takahashi M, Suzuki H, Harada H, Kato Y. H 2Mab-77 is a Sensitive and Specific Anti-HER2 Monoclonal Antibody Against Breast Cancer. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2017; 36:143-148. [PMID: 28700270 PMCID: PMC6985780 DOI: 10.1089/mab.2017.0026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) plays a critical role in the progression of breast cancers, and HER2 overexpression is associated with poor clinical outcomes. Trastuzumab is an anti-HER2 humanized antibody that leads to significant survival benefits in patients with HER2-positive metastatic breast cancers. In this study, we developed novel anti-HER2 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and characterized their efficacy in flow cytometry, Western blot, and immunohistochemical analyses. Initially, we expressed the full length or ectodomain of HER2 in LN229 glioblastoma cells and then immunized mice with ectodomain of HER2 or LN229/HER2, and performed the first screening by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays using ectodomain of HER2. Subsequently, we selected mAbs according to their efficacy in flow cytometry (second screening), Western blot (third screening), and immunohistochemical analyses (fourth screening). Among 100 mAb clones, only three mAbs reacted with HER2 in Western blot, and clone H2Mab-77 (IgG1, kappa) was selected. Finally, immunohistochemical analyses with H2Mab-77 showed sensitive and specific reactions against breast cancer cells, warranting the use of H2Mab-77 to detect HER2 in pathological analyses of breast cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunsuke Itai
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan .,2 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuki Fujii
- 3 Department of Regional Innovation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Mika K Kaneko
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Shinji Yamada
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Takuro Nakamura
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Miyuki Yanaka
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Noriko Saidoh
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Yao-Wen Chang
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Saori Handa
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Maki Takahashi
- 4 Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Sendai Medical Center , Miyagino, Miyagino-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Hiroyoshi Suzuki
- 4 Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Sendai Medical Center , Miyagino, Miyagino-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Harada
- 2 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan .,3 Department of Regional Innovation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine , Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan .,5 New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University , Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
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14
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Kaneko MK, Kunita A, Yamada S, Nakamura T, Yanaka M, Saidoh N, Chang YW, Handa S, Ogasawara S, Ohishi T, Abe S, Itai S, Harada H, Kawada M, Nishioka Y, Fukayama M, Kato Y. Antipodocalyxin Antibody chPcMab-47 Exerts Antitumor Activity in Mouse Xenograft Models of Colorectal Adenocarcinomas. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2017; 36:157-162. [PMID: 28665782 DOI: 10.1089/mab.2017.0020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Podocalyxin (PODXL) is expressed in several cancers, including brain tumors and colorectal cancers. PODXL overexpression is an independent predictor of progression, metastasis, and poor outcome. We recently immunized mice with recombinant human PODXL, which was produced using LN229 glioblastoma cells, and produced a clone PcMab-47 that could be used for investigating PODXL expression by flow cytometry and immunohistochemical analysis. Herein, we produced a human-mouse chimeric PcMab-47 (chPcMab-47) and investigated its antitumor activity against PODXL-expressing tumors. chPcMab-47 reacted with LN229, LN229/PODXL, and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)/PODXL cells, but it did not react with CHO-K1 or PODXL-knockout LN229 cell line (PDIS-13). chPcMab-47 exerted antitumor activity against a mouse xenograft model using CHO/PODXL. Furthermore, chPcMab-47 was reactive with colorectal cancer cell lines such as HCT-15, Caco-2, HCT-8, and DLD-1. chPcMab-47 also exhibited antitumor activity against a mouse xenograft model using HCT-15. These results suggest that chPcMab-47 could be useful for antibody therapy against PODXL-expressing cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mika K Kaneko
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University , Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Akiko Kunita
- 2 Department of Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shinji Yamada
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University , Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Takuro Nakamura
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University , Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Miyuki Yanaka
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University , Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Noriko Saidoh
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University , Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yao-Wen Chang
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University , Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Saori Handa
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University , Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Satoshi Ogasawara
- 3 Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Chiba University , Chiba, Japan
| | - Tomokazu Ohishi
- 4 Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Numazu, Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Shinji Abe
- 5 Department of Clinical Pharmacy Practice Pedagogy, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University , Tokushima, Japan .,6 Department of Respiratory Medicine and Rheumatology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University , Tokushima, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Itai
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University , Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan .,7 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Harada
- 7 Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Manabu Kawada
- 4 Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Numazu, Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Yasuhiko Nishioka
- 6 Department of Respiratory Medicine and Rheumatology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University , Tokushima, Japan
| | - Masashi Fukayama
- 2 Department of Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo , Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- 1 Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University , Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan .,8 New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University , Sendai, Japan
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