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Thygesen MM, Entezari S, Houlind N, Nielsen TH, Olsen NØ, Nielsen TD, Skov M, Borgstedt-Bendixen J, Tankisi A, Rasmussen M, Einarsson HB, Agger P, Orlowski D, Dyrskog SE, Thorup L, Pedersen M, Rasmussen MM. A 72-h sedated porcine model of traumatic spinal cord injury. BRAIN & SPINE 2024; 4:102813. [PMID: 38681174 PMCID: PMC11052900 DOI: 10.1016/j.bas.2024.102813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
Introduction There is an increasing focus on the prevention of secondary injuries following traumatic spinal cord injury (TSCI), especially through improvement of spinal cord perfusion and immunological modulation. Such therapeutic strategies require translational and controlled animal models of disease progression of the acute phases of human TSCI. Research question Is it possible to establish a 72-h sedated porcine model of incomplete thoracic TSCI, enabling controlled use of continuous, invasive, and non-invasive modalities during the entire sub-acute phase of TSCI? Material and methods A sham-controlled trial was conducted to establish the model, and 10 animals were assigned to either sham or TSCI. All animals underwent a laminectomy, and animals in the TSCI group were subjected to a weight-drop injury. Animals were then kept sedated for 72 h. The amount of injury was assessed by ex-vivo measures MRI-based fiber tractography, histology and immunohistochemistry. Results In all animals, we were successful in maintaining sedation for 72 h without comprising vital physiological parameters. The MRI-based fiber tractography showed that all TSCI animals revealed a break in the integrity of spinal neurons, whereas histology demonstrated no transversal sections of the spine with complete injury. Notably, some animals displayed signs of secondary ischemic tissue in the cranial and caudal sections. Discussion and conclusions This study succeeded in producing a porcine model of incomplete TSCI, which was physiologically stable up to 72 h. We believe that this TSCI model will constitute a potential translational model to study the pathophysiology secondary to TSCI in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Møller Thygesen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine CENSE, Aarhus University, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine Comparative Medicine Lab, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Seyar Entezari
- Department of Neurosurgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine CENSE, Aarhus University, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine Comparative Medicine Lab, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Nanna Houlind
- Department of Neurosurgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine CENSE, Aarhus University, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine Comparative Medicine Lab, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Teresa Haugaard Nielsen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine CENSE, Aarhus University, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine Comparative Medicine Lab, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Nicholas Østergaard Olsen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine CENSE, Aarhus University, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine Comparative Medicine Lab, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Tim Damgaard Nielsen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine CENSE, Aarhus University, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine Comparative Medicine Lab, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Mathias Skov
- Department of Clinical Medicine Comparative Medicine Lab, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | | | - Alp Tankisi
- Department of Anesthesiology, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
| | - Mads Rasmussen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
| | | | - Peter Agger
- Department of Clinical Medicine Comparative Medicine Lab, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | | | | | - Line Thorup
- Department of Intensive Care, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
| | - Michael Pedersen
- Department of Clinical Medicine Comparative Medicine Lab, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Mikkel Mylius Rasmussen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine CENSE, Aarhus University, Denmark
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Pukale DD, Adkins-Travis K, Aryal SR, Shriver LP, Patti GJ, Leipzig ND. Investigating post-traumatic syringomyelia and local fluid osmoregulation via a rat model. Fluids Barriers CNS 2024; 21:19. [PMID: 38409031 PMCID: PMC10895764 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-024-00514-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Syringomyelia (SM) is characterized by the development of fluid-filled cavities, referred to as syrinxes, within the spinal cord tissue. The molecular etiology of SM post-spinal cord injury (SCI) is not well understood and only invasive surgical based treatments are available to treat SM clinically. This study builds upon our previous omics studies and in vitro cellular investigations to further understand local fluid osmoregulation in post-traumatic SM (PTSM) to highlight important pathways for future molecular interventions. METHODS A rat PTSM model consisting of a laminectomy at the C7 to T1 level followed by a parenchymal injection of 2 μL quisqualic acid (QA) and an injection of 5 μL kaolin in the subarachnoid space was utilized 6 weeks after initial surgery, parenchymal fluid and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were collected, and the osmolality of fluids were analyzed. Immunohistochemistry (IHC), metabolomics analysis using LC-MS, and mass spectrometry-based imaging (MSI) were performed on injured and laminectomy-only control spinal cords. RESULTS We demonstrated that the osmolality of the local parenchymal fluid encompassing syrinxes was higher compared to control spinal cords after laminectomy, indicating a local osmotic imbalance due to SM injury. Moreover, we also found that parenchymal fluid is more hypertonic than CSF, indicating establishment of a local osmotic gradient in the PTSM injured spinal cord (syrinx site) forcing fluid into the spinal cord parenchyma to form and/or expand syrinxes. IHC results demonstrated upregulation of betaine, ions, water channels/transporters, and enzymes (BGT1, AQP1, AQP4, CHDH) at the syrinx site as compared to caudal and rostral sites to the injury, implying extensive local osmoregulation activities at the syrinx site. Further, metabolomics analysis corroborated alterations in osmolality at the syrinx site by upregulation of small molecule osmolytes including betaine, carnitine, glycerophosphocholine, arginine, creatine, guanidinoacetate, and spermidine. CONCLUSIONS In summary, PTSM results in local osmotic disturbance that propagates at 6 weeks following initial injury. This coincides with and may contribute to syrinx formation/expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipak D Pukale
- Department of Chemical, Biomolecular, and Corrosion Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH, 44325, USA
| | - Kayla Adkins-Travis
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicine, Center for Proteomics, Metabolomics, and Isotope Tracing, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Siddhartha R Aryal
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH, 44325, USA
| | - Leah P Shriver
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicine, Center for Proteomics, Metabolomics, and Isotope Tracing, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Gary J Patti
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicine, Center for Proteomics, Metabolomics, and Isotope Tracing, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Nic D Leipzig
- Department of Chemical, Biomolecular, and Corrosion Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH, 44325, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH, 44325, USA.
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Jeffery ND, Rossmeisl JH, Harcourt-Brown TR, Granger N, Ito D, Foss K, Chase D. Randomized Controlled Trial of Durotomy as an Adjunct to Routine Decompressive Surgery for Dogs With Severe Acute Spinal Cord Injury. Neurotrauma Rep 2024; 5:128-138. [PMID: 38414780 PMCID: PMC10898236 DOI: 10.1089/neur.2023.0129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Although many interventions for acute spinal cord injury (SCI) appear promising in experimental models, translation directly from experimental animals to human patients is a large step that can be problematic. Acute SCI occurs frequently in companion dogs and may provide a model to ease translation. Recently, incision of the dura has been highlighted in both research animals and human patients as a means of reducing intraspinal pressure, with a view to improving perfusion of the injured tissue and enhancing functional recovery. Observational clinical data in humans and dogs support the notion that it may also improve functional outcome. Here, we report the results of a multi-center randomized controlled trial of durotomy as an adjunct to traditional decompressive surgery for treatment of severe thoracolumbar SCI caused by acute intervertebral disc herniation in dogs. Sample-size calculation was based on the proportion of dogs recovering ambulation improving from an expected 55% in the traditional surgery group to 70% in the durotomy group. Over a 3.5-year period, we enrolled 140 dogs, of which 128 had appropriate duration of follow-up. Overall, 65 (51%) dogs recovered ambulation. Recovery in the traditional decompression group was 35 of 62 (56%) dogs, and in the durotomy group 30 of 66 (45%) dogs, associated with an odds ratio of 0.643 (95% confidence interval: 0.320-1.292) and z-score of -1.24. This z-score indicates trial futility to reach the target 15% improvement over traditional surgery, and the trial was terminated at this stage. We conclude that durotomy is ineffective in improving functional outcome for severe acute thoracolumbar SCI in dogs. In the future, these data can be compared with similar data from clinical trials on duraplasty in human patients and will aid in determining the predictive validity of the "companion dog model" of acute SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick D. Jeffery
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - John H. Rossmeisl
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, VA-MD College of Veterinary Medicine, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | | | | | - Daisuke Ito
- Nihon University College of Bioresource Sciences Department of Veterinary Medicine, Fujisawa, Japan
| | - Kari Foss
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign, Champaign, Illinois, USA
| | - Damian Chase
- Veterinary Specialists Aotearora, Auckland, New Zealand
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Weber-Levine C, Hersh AM, Jiang K, Routkevitch D, Tsehay Y, Perdomo-Pantoja A, Judy BF, Kerensky M, Liu A, Adams M, Izzi J, Doloff JC, Manbachi A, Theodore N. Porcine Model of Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review. Neurotrauma Rep 2022; 3:352-368. [PMID: 36204385 PMCID: PMC9531891 DOI: 10.1089/neur.2022.0038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating disease with limited effective treatment options. Animal paradigms are vital for understanding the pathogenesis of SCI and testing potential therapeutics. The porcine model of SCI is increasingly favored because of its greater similarity to humans. However, its adoption is limited by the complexities of care and range of testing parameters. Researchers need to consider swine selection, injury method, post-operative care, rehabilitation, behavioral outcomes, and histology metrics. Therefore, we systematically reviewed full-text English-language articles to evaluate study characteristics used in developing a porcine model and summarize the interventions that have been tested using this paradigm. A total of 63 studies were included, with 33 examining SCI pathogenesis and 30 testing interventions. Studies had an average sample size of 15 pigs with an average weight of 26 kg, and most used female swine with injury to the thoracic cord. Injury was most commonly induced by weight drop with compression. The porcine model is amenable to testing various interventions, including mean arterial pressure augmentation (n = 7), electrical stimulation (n = 6), stem cell therapy (n = 5), hypothermia (n = 2), biomaterials (n = 2), gene therapy (n = 2), steroids (n = 1), and nanoparticles (n = 1). It is also notable for its clinical translatability and is emerging as a valuable pre-clinical study tool. This systematic review can serve as a guideline for researchers implementing and testing the porcine SCI model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carly Weber-Levine
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew M. Hersh
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Kelly Jiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Denis Routkevitch
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Yohannes Tsehay
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Brendan F. Judy
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Max Kerensky
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Ann Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Melanie Adams
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Jessica Izzi
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Joshua C. Doloff
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Amir Manbachi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Nicholas Theodore
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Fibrotic Scar in CNS Injuries: From the Cellular Origins of Fibroblasts to the Molecular Processes of Fibrotic Scar Formation. Cells 2022; 11:cells11152371. [PMID: 35954214 PMCID: PMC9367779 DOI: 10.3390/cells11152371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/30/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS) trauma activates a persistent repair response that leads to fibrotic scar formation within the lesion. This scarring is similar to other organ fibrosis in many ways; however, the unique features of the CNS differentiate it from other organs. In this review, we discuss fibrotic scar formation in CNS trauma, including the cellular origins of fibroblasts, the mechanism of fibrotic scar formation following an injury, as well as the implication of the fibrotic scar in CNS tissue remodeling and regeneration. While discussing the shared features of CNS fibrotic scar and fibrosis outside the CNS, we highlight their differences and discuss therapeutic targets that may enhance regeneration in the CNS.
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Fauss GNK, Strain MM, Huang YJ, Reynolds JA, Davis JA, Henwood MK, West CR, Grau JW. Contribution of Brain Processes to Tissue Loss After Spinal Cord Injury: Does a Pain-Induced Rise in Blood Pressure Fuel Hemorrhage? Front Syst Neurosci 2022; 15:733056. [PMID: 34975424 PMCID: PMC8714654 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2021.733056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pain (nociceptive) input soon after spinal cord injury (SCI) expands the area of tissue loss (secondary injury) and impairs long-term recovery. Evidence suggests that nociceptive stimulation has this effect because it promotes acute hemorrhage. Disrupting communication with the brain blocks this effect. The current study examined whether rostral systems exacerbate tissue loss because pain input drives an increase in systolic blood pressure (BP) and flow that fuels blood infiltration. Rats received a moderate contusion injury to the lower thoracic (T12) spinal cord. Communication with rostral processes was disrupted by cutting the spinal cord 18 h later at T2. Noxious electrical stimulation (shock) applied to the tail (Experiment 1), or application of the irritant capsaicin to one hind paw (Experiment 2), increased hemorrhage at the site of injury. Shock, but not capsaicin, increased systolic BP and tail blood flow in sham-operated rats. Cutting communication with the brain blocked the shock-induced increase in systolic BP and tail blood flow. Experiment 3 examined the effect of artificially driving a rise in BP with norepinephrine (NE) in animals that received shock. Spinal transection attenuated hemorrhage in vehicle-treated rats. Treatment with NE drove a robust increase in BP and tail blood flow but did not increase the extent of hemorrhage. The results suggest pain input after SCI can engage rostral processes that fuel hemorrhage and drive sustained cardiovascular output. An increase in BP was not, however, necessary or sufficient to drive hemorrhage, implicating other brain-dependent processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gizelle N K Fauss
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Misty M Strain
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Texas Health Science San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | | | - Joshua A Reynolds
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Jacob A Davis
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Melissa K Henwood
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Christopher R West
- Centre for Chronic Disease Prevention and Management, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - James W Grau
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
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