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Szczepocka E, Mokros Ł, Kaźmierski J, Nowakowska K, Łucka A, Antoszczyk A, Oltra-Cucarella J, Werzowa W, Hellevik M, Skouras S, Bagger K. Virtual reality-based training may improve visual memory and some aspects of sustained attention among healthy older adults - preliminary results of a randomized controlled study. BMC Psychiatry 2024; 24:347. [PMID: 38720251 PMCID: PMC11080129 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-024-05811-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Older age and cognitive inactivity have been associated with cognitive impairment, which in turn is linked to economic and societal burdens due to the high costs of care, especially for care homes and informal care. Emerging non-pharmacological interventions using new technologies, such as virtual reality (VR) delivered on a head-mounted display (HMD), might offer an alternative to maintain or improve cognition. The study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a VR-based Digital Therapeutics application for improving cognitive functions among healthy older adults. METHODS Seventy-two healthy seniors (experimental group N = 35, control group N = 37), aged 65-85 years, were recruited by the Medical University of Lodz (Poland). Participants were randomly allocated to the experimental group (a VR-based cognitive training which consists of a warm-up module and three tasks, including one-back and dual-N-back) or to the control group (a regular VR headset app only showing nature videos). The exercises are performed in different 360-degree natural environments while listening to a preferred music genre and delivered on a head-mounted display (HMD). The 12-week intervention of 12 min was delivered at least three times per week (36 sessions). Compliance and performance were followed through a web-based application. Primary outcomes included attention and working memory (CNS-Vital Signs computerized cognitive battery). Secondary outcomes comprised other cognitive domains. Mixed linear models were constructed to elucidate the difference in pre- and post-intervention measures between the experimental and control groups. RESULTS The users performed, on average, 39.8 sessions (range 1-100), and 60% performed more than 36 sessions. The experimental group achieved higher scores in the visual memory module (B = 7.767, p = 0.011) and in the one-back continuous performance test (in terms of correct responses: B = 2.057, p = 0.003 and omission errors: B = -1.950, p = 0.007) than the control group in the post-test assessment. The results were independent of participants' sex, age, and years of education. The differences in CNS Vital Signs' global score, working memory, executive function, reaction time, processing speed, simple and complex attention, verbal memory, cognitive flexibility, motor speed, and psychomotor speed were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS VR-based cognitive training may prove to be a valuable, efficacious, and well-received tool in terms of improving visual memory and some aspect of sustainability of attention among healthy older adults. This is a preliminary analysis based on part of the obtained results to that point. Final conclusions will be drawn after the analysis of the target sample size. TRIAL REGISTRATION Clinicaltrials.gov ID NCT05369897.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Szczepocka
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry and Psychotic Disorders, Medical University of Lodz, Czechosłowacka 8/10, Lodz, 92-216, Poland.
| | - Łukasz Mokros
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Jakub Kaźmierski
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry and Psychotic Disorders, Medical University of Lodz, Czechosłowacka 8/10, Lodz, 92-216, Poland
| | - Karina Nowakowska
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry and Psychotic Disorders, Medical University of Lodz, Czechosłowacka 8/10, Lodz, 92-216, Poland
| | - Anna Łucka
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry and Psychotic Disorders, Medical University of Lodz, Czechosłowacka 8/10, Lodz, 92-216, Poland
| | - Anna Antoszczyk
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry and Psychotic Disorders, Medical University of Lodz, Czechosłowacka 8/10, Lodz, 92-216, Poland
| | - Javier Oltra-Cucarella
- Senopi AG, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Health Psychology, University Miguel Hernández de Elche, Elche, Spain
| | | | | | - Stavros Skouras
- Senopi AG, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Biological and Medical Psychology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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Zhu R, Luo Y, Wang Z, You X. Within-session repeated transcranial direct current stimulation of the posterior parietal cortex enhances spatial working memory. Cogn Neurosci 2021; 13:26-37. [PMID: 33739230 DOI: 10.1080/17588928.2021.1877648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Spatial working memory (SWM) is an essential cognitive ability that supports complex tasks, but its capacity is limited. Studies using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) have shown potential benefits for SWM performance. Recent studies have shown that repeated short applications of tDCS affected corticospinal excitability. Moreover, neuroimaging studies have indicated that the pattern of neural activity measured in the posterior parietal cortex (PPC) tracks SWM ability. It is unknown whether repeated tDCS can enhance SWM and whether varied tDCS protocols (single 10 min tDCS, 10 min tDCS-5 min break-10 min tDCS, 10 min tDCS-20 min break-10 min tDCS) over the right PPC have different effects on SWM. The current study investigated whether offline single-session and repeated tDCS over the right PPC affects SWM updating, as measured by spatial 2-back and 3-back tasks. The results showed that stimulating the right PPC with repeated 10 min anodal tDCS significantly improved the response speed of the spatial 2-back task relative to single-session tDCS. Repeated 10 min tDCS with a longer interval (i.e. inter-stimulation interval of 20 min) enhanced the response speed of the spatial 3-back task. Altogether these findings provide causal evidence that suggests that the right PPC plays an important role in SWM. Furthermore, repeated tDCS with longer intervals may be a promising intervention for improving SWM-related function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongjuan Zhu
- Key Laboratory for Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience of Shaanxi Province, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yangmei Luo
- Key Laboratory for Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience of Shaanxi Province, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
| | - Ziyu Wang
- Key Laboratory for Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience of Shaanxi Province, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xuqun You
- Key Laboratory for Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience of Shaanxi Province, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
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Ebaid D, Crewther SG. Temporal Aspects of Memory: A Comparison of Memory Performance, Processing Speed and Time Estimation Between Young and Older Adults. Front Aging Neurosci 2018; 10:352. [PMID: 30459592 PMCID: PMC6232528 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive abilities are often reported to decline across the lifespan, particularly when assessed with working memory (WM) measures such as the auditory backward digit span and complex N-back tasks. However, some debate still exists regarding which aspects of cognition are most susceptible to the aging process and which may remain intact. Additionally, time estimation, though a complex psychological dimension, is often studied in relative isolation and is particularly neglected in traditional studies of WM, with little research from the viewpoint of retrospective temporal estimation. In particular, research seldom considers whether the ability to accurately estimate time retrospectively, is correlated with performance on traditional memory and processing speed measures in healthy populations. Thus, we chose to investigate performance of comparably educated young and older adult groups on both classical memory tasks including auditory and visual digit spans, N-back, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)-based measures of processing speed (i.e., Symbol Search [SS] and Coding [Cod]) and a temporal measure of WM with a focus on retrospective time estimation. Our sample included 66 university students (58 F, 8 M) between the ages of 18-29, and 33 university-educated healthy older adults (25 F, 8 M) between the ages of 60-81. Results indicated that older adults performed significantly worse on auditory but not the visual digit span tasks, as well as on both the SS and Cod, though performed equally well on the N = 1 back task. Results also showed that retrospective time estimation was not significantly different between young and older adults, with both groups substantially underestimating duration of a simple task. Retrospective time estimation was not significantly correlated to any memory or processing speed measure, emphasizing the need for future research into the specific cognitive domains underlying the subjective estimation of a temporal interval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deena Ebaid
- Department of Psychology and Counselling, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Sheila G Crewther
- Department of Psychology and Counselling, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Jones KT, Stephens JA, Alam M, Bikson M, Berryhill ME. Longitudinal neurostimulation in older adults improves working memory. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0121904. [PMID: 25849358 PMCID: PMC4388845 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
An increasing concern affecting a growing aging population is working memory (WM) decline. Consequently, there is great interest in improving or stabilizing WM, which drives expanded use of brain training exercises. Such regimens generally result in temporary WM benefits to the trained tasks but minimal transfer of benefit to untrained tasks. Pairing training with neurostimulation may stabilize or improve WM performance by enhancing plasticity and strengthening WM-related cortical networks. We tested this possibility in healthy older adults. Participants received 10 sessions of sham (control) or active (anodal, 1.5 mA) tDCS to the right prefrontal, parietal, or prefrontal/parietal (alternating) cortices. After ten minutes of sham or active tDCS, participants performed verbal and visual WM training tasks. On the first, tenth, and follow-up sessions, participants performed transfer WM tasks including the spatial 2-back, Stroop, and digit span tasks. The results demonstrated that all groups benefited from WM training, as expected. However, at follow-up 1-month after training ended, only the participants in the active tDCS groups maintained significant improvement. Importantly, this pattern was observed for both trained and transfer tasks. These results demonstrate that tDCS-linked WM training can provide long-term benefits in maintaining cognitive training benefits and extending them to untrained tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin T. Jones
- Memory and Brain Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, United States of America
- Cognitive Neuropsychology Lab, Department of Neurology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America
| | - Jaclyn A. Stephens
- Memory and Brain Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, United States of America
| | - Mahtab Alam
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The City College of New York, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Marom Bikson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The City College of New York, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Marian E. Berryhill
- Memory and Brain Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Naude PJW, Dobos N, van der Meer D, Mulder C, Pawironadi KGD, den Boer JA, van der Zee EA, Luiten PGM, Eisel ULM. Analysis of cognition, motor performance and anxiety in young and aged tumor necrosis factor alpha receptor 1 and 2 deficient mice. Behav Brain Res 2013; 258:43-51. [PMID: 24135018 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2013] [Revised: 10/03/2013] [Accepted: 10/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
TNF-α plays important functional roles in the central nervous system during normal physiological circumstances via intricate signaling mechanisms between its receptors, TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) and TNF receptor 2 (TNFR2). Although the roles of TNFR1 and TNFR2 in the diseased brain have received considerable attention, their functions on behavior and cognition in a non-inflammatory physiological aged environment are still unknown. In the present study we investigated the functional roles of TNFR1 and TNFR2 in learning and memory, motor performance and anxiety-like behavior via several behavioral and cognitive assessments in young and aged mice, deficient of either TNFR1 or TNFR2. Results from this study show that deletion of TNFR2 impairs novel object recognition, spatial memory recognition, contextual fear conditioning, motor performance and can increase anxiety-like behavior in young adult mice. Concerning the functions of TNFR1 and TNFR2 functioning in an aged environment, age caused memory impairment in spatial memory recognition independent of genotype. However, both young and aged mice deficient of TNFR2 performed poorly in the contextual fear conditioning test. These mice displayed decreased anxiety-like behavior, whereas mice deficient of TNFR1 were insusceptible to the effect of aging on anxiety-like behavior. This study provides novel knowledge on TNFR1 and TNFR2 functioning in behavior and cognition in young and aged mice in a non-inflammatory physiological environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petrus J W Naude
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands; Department of Neurology and Alzheimer Research Center, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, The Netherlands
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Aicardi G. Age-related impairment of visual recognition memory correlates with impaired synaptic distribution of GluA2 and protein kinase Mζ in the dentate gyrus. Rejuvenation Res 2013; 15:530-3. [PMID: 22985047 DOI: 10.1089/rej.2012.1375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Age-related functional alterations in the perforant path projection from the entorhinal cortex to the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus play a major role in age-related memory impairments, but little is known about the molecular mechanisms responsible for these changes. In a recent study, young and aged monkeys were tested on the visual recognition memory test "delayed nonmatching-to-sample"; then, electron microscopic immunocytochemistry was performed in the hippocampal DG to determine the subcellular localization of the GluA2 subunit of the glutamate α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4- isoxazole-propionic acid receptor (AMPAR) and protein kinase Mζ (PKMζ), which promotes memory storage by regulating GluA2-containing AMPAR trafficking. The results obtained suggest that age-related deficits in visual recognition memory are coupled with impairment in PKMζ-dependent maintenance of GluA2 at the synapse. Together with previous evidences of the critical role of PKMζ in memory consolidation, these data render this enzyme an attractive potential therapeutic target for treating age-related memory decline, and support the view that the pharmacological manipulation of AMPAR trafficking in the synapses may provide new insights in the search of memory enhancers for aged individuals, including those affected by Alzheimer disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio Aicardi
- Department of Human and General Physiology, and Interdepartmental Centre Luigi Galvani for the Study of Biophysics, Bioinformatics and Biocomplexity, University of Bologna, Via San Donato 19/2, Bologna, Italy.
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Aicardi G. Protein kinase Mζ-dependent maintenance of GluA2 at the synapse: a possible target for preventing or treating age-related memory decline? Rejuvenation Res 2013; 16:327-9. [PMID: 23679685 DOI: 10.1089/rej.2013.1448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Age-related functional alterations in the perforant path projection from the entorhinal cortex to the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus play a major role in age-related memory impairments, but little is known about the molecular mechanisms responsible for these changes. In a recent interesting study, Hara and colleagues (J Neurosci 2012;32:7336-7344) tested young and aged monkeys on the visual recognition memory test "delayed nonmatching-to-sample" (DNMS). Then they performed electron microscopy immunocytochemistry in the hippocampal DG to determine the subcellular localization of the GluA2 subunit of the glutamate α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid receptor (AMPAR) and protein kinase Mζ (PKMζ), which promotes memory storage by regulating GluA2-containing AMPAR trafficking. The results obtained suggest that age-related deficits in visual recognition memory are coupled with impairment in PKMζ-dependent maintenance of GluA2 at the synapse. Together with previous evidence of the critical role of PKMζ in memory consolidation, these data render this enzyme an attractive potential therapeutic target for preventing or treating age-related memory decline, and support the view that the pharmacological manipulation of AMPAR trafficking in the synapses may provide new insights in the search of memory enhancers for aged individuals, including those affected by Alzheimer disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio Aicardi
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, 40127 Bologna, Italy.
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Marques-Aleixo I, Rocha-Rodrigues S, Santos-Alves E, Coxito PM, Passos E, Oliveira PJ, Magalhães J, Ascensão A. In vitro salicylate does not further impair aging-induced brain mitochondrial dysfunction. Toxicology 2012; 302:51-9. [PMID: 22967791 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2012.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Revised: 07/23/2012] [Accepted: 07/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Aging and drug-induced side effects may contribute to the deterioration of mitochondrial bioenergetics in the brain. One hypothesis is that the combination of both deleterious stimuli accelerates the process of mitochondrial degradation, leading to progressive bioenergetic disruption. The hypothesis was tested by analyzing the isolated and combined effect of aging and salicylate, a vastly used anti-inflammatory drug, on isolated brain fractions in rats. Male Wistar rats were divided according to age in two groups: adult (n=8, 19 weeks of age) and aged (n=8, 106 weeks of age). In vitro endpoints of brain mitochondrial function including oxygen consumption and transmembrane electric potential (ΔΨ) were evaluated in the absence and in the presence of salicylate (0.5mM). Brain mitochondrial susceptibility to calcium-induced permeability transition pore (MPTP) was also assessed. Mitochondrial oxidative stress was determined by measuring aconitase and manganese-superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, and content in sulfhydryl groups (SH) and malondialdehyde (MDA). Mitochondrial content in apoptotic-related proteins Bax, Bcl-2 and cyclophilin D was determined by Western Blotting. Under basal, untreated, conditions, aging affected brain mitochondrial state 3 respiration, maximal ΔΨ developed, ADP phosphorylation lag phase and calcium-induced MPTP. Interestingly, MDA decreased and Mn-SOD activity increased in the aged group. Brain mitochondrial Bcl-2 content decreased and Bax/Bcl-2 ratio increased in aged group. Salicylate incubation for 20min increased lipid peroxidation in the aged group only and stimulated respiration during state 2, accompanied by decreased ΔΨ, although both effects were independent of the animal age. We confirmed that both aging and salicylate per se impaired brain mitochondrial bioenergetics, although the combination of both does not seem to worsen the mitochondrial end-points studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Marques-Aleixo
- CIAFEL - Research Centre in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Portugal.
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Mendelsohn AR, Larrick JW. Epigenetic-Mediated Decline in Synaptic Plasticity During Aging. Rejuvenation Res 2012; 15:98-101. [DOI: 10.1089/rej.2012.1312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R. Mendelsohn
- Panorama Research Institute and Regenerative Sciences Institute, Sunnyvale, California
| | - James W. Larrick
- Panorama Research Institute and Regenerative Sciences Institute, Sunnyvale, California
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Mendelsohn AR, Larrick JW. Overcoming the Aging Systemic Milieu to Restore Neural Stem Cell Function. Rejuvenation Res 2011; 14:681-4. [DOI: 10.1089/rej.2011.1301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R. Mendelsohn
- Panorama Research Institute and Regenerative Sciences Institute, Sunnyvale, California
| | - James W. Larrick
- Panorama Research Institute and Regenerative Sciences Institute, Sunnyvale, California
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