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Goodman SB, Lin T. Modifying MSC Phenotype to Facilitate Bone Healing: Biological Approaches. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:641. [PMID: 32671040 PMCID: PMC7328340 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Healing of fractures and bone defects normally follows an orderly series of events including formation of a hematoma and an initial stage of inflammation, development of soft callus, formation of hard callus, and finally the stage of bone remodeling. In cases of severe musculoskeletal injury due to trauma, infection, irradiation and other adverse stimuli, deficient healing may lead to delayed or non-union; this results in a residual bone defect with instability, pain and loss of function. Modern methods of mechanical stabilization and autologous bone grafting are often successful in achieving fracture union and healing of bone defects; however, in some cases, this treatment is unsuccessful because of inadequate biological factors. Specifically, the systemic and local microenvironment may not be conducive to bone healing because of a loss of the progenitor cell population for bone and vascular lineage cells. Autologous bone grafting can provide the necessary scaffold, progenitor and differentiated lineage cells, and biological cues for bone reconstruction, however, autologous bone graft may be limited in quantity or quality. These unfavorable circumstances are magnified in systemic conditions with chronic inflammation, including obesity, diabetes, chronic renal disease, aging and others. Recently, strategies have been devised to both mitigate the necessity for, and complications from, open procedures for harvesting of autologous bone by using minimally invasive aspiration techniques and concentration of iliac crest bone cells, followed by local injection into the defect site. More elaborate strategies (not yet approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration-FDA) include isolation and expansion of subpopulations of the harvested cells, preconditioning of these cells or inserting specific genes to modulate or facilitate bone healing. We review the literature pertinent to the subject of modifying autologous harvested cells including MSCs to facilitate bone healing. Although many of these techniques and technologies are still in the preclinical stage and not yet approved for use in humans by the FDA, novel approaches to accelerate bone healing by modifying cells has great potential to mitigate the physical, economic and social burden of non-healing fractures and bone defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart B Goodman
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Redwood City, CA, United States.,Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Tzuhua Lin
- Orthopaedic Research Laboratories, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
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2
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Fan D, Staufer U, Accardo A. Engineered 3D Polymer and Hydrogel Microenvironments for Cell Culture Applications. Bioengineering (Basel) 2019; 6:E113. [PMID: 31847117 PMCID: PMC6955903 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering6040113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Revised: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The realization of biomimetic microenvironments for cell biology applications such as organ-on-chip, in vitro drug screening, and tissue engineering is one of the most fascinating research areas in the field of bioengineering. The continuous evolution of additive manufacturing techniques provides the tools to engineer these architectures at different scales. Moreover, it is now possible to tailor their biomechanical and topological properties while taking inspiration from the characteristics of the extracellular matrix, the three-dimensional scaffold in which cells proliferate, migrate, and differentiate. In such context, there is therefore a continuous quest for synthetic and nature-derived composite materials that must hold biocompatible, biodegradable, bioactive features and also be compatible with the envisioned fabrication strategy. The structure of the current review is intended to provide to both micro-engineers and cell biologists a comparative overview of the characteristics, advantages, and drawbacks of the major 3D printing techniques, the most promising biomaterials candidates, and the trade-offs that must be considered in order to replicate the properties of natural microenvironments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Angelo Accardo
- Department of Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands; (D.F.); (U.S.)
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3
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Piuzzi NS, Mantripragada VP, Kwee E, Sumski A, Selvam S, Boehm C, Muschler GF. Bone Marrow-Derived Cellular Therapies in Orthopaedics: Part II: Recommendations for Reporting the Quality of Bone Marrow-Derived Cell Populations. JBJS Rev 2019; 6:e5. [PMID: 30461436 DOI: 10.2106/jbjs.rvw.18.00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas S Piuzzi
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering (N.S.P., V.P.M., E.K., A.S., S.S., C.B., and G.F.M.) and Orthopaedic Surgery (N.S.P. and G.F.M.), Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Instituto Universitario del Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Venkata P Mantripragada
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering (N.S.P., V.P.M., E.K., A.S., S.S., C.B., and G.F.M.) and Orthopaedic Surgery (N.S.P. and G.F.M.), Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Edward Kwee
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering (N.S.P., V.P.M., E.K., A.S., S.S., C.B., and G.F.M.) and Orthopaedic Surgery (N.S.P. and G.F.M.), Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Alan Sumski
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering (N.S.P., V.P.M., E.K., A.S., S.S., C.B., and G.F.M.) and Orthopaedic Surgery (N.S.P. and G.F.M.), Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Selvaanish Selvam
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering (N.S.P., V.P.M., E.K., A.S., S.S., C.B., and G.F.M.) and Orthopaedic Surgery (N.S.P. and G.F.M.), Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Cynthia Boehm
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering (N.S.P., V.P.M., E.K., A.S., S.S., C.B., and G.F.M.) and Orthopaedic Surgery (N.S.P. and G.F.M.), Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - George F Muschler
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering (N.S.P., V.P.M., E.K., A.S., S.S., C.B., and G.F.M.) and Orthopaedic Surgery (N.S.P. and G.F.M.), Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
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Liao W, Xu L, Wangrao K, Du Y, Xiong Q, Yao Y. Three-dimensional printing with biomaterials in craniofacial and dental tissue engineering. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7271. [PMID: 31328038 PMCID: PMC6622164 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
With the development of technology, tissue engineering (TE) has been widely applied in the medical field. In recent years, due to its accuracy and the demands of solid freeform fabrication in TE, three-dimensional printing, also known as additive manufacturing (AM), has been applied for biological scaffold fabrication in craniofacial and dental regeneration. In this review, we have compared several types of AM techniques and summarized their advantages and limitations. The range of printable materials used in craniofacial and dental tissue includes all the biomaterials. Thus, basic and clinical studies were discussed in this review to present the application of AM techniques in craniofacial and dental tissue and their advances during these years, which might provide information for further AM studies in craniofacial and dental TE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Liao
- Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Lin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Kaijuan Wangrao
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yu Du
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Qiuchan Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Department of Oral Implantology, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yang Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Department of Oral Implantology, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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Hassan MN, Yassin MA, Suliman S, Lie SA, Gjengedal H, Mustafa K. The bone regeneration capacity of 3D-printed templates in calvarial defect models: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Biomater 2019; 91:1-23. [PMID: 30980937 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2019.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
3D-printed templates are being used for bone tissue regeneration (BTR) as temporary guides. In the current review, we analyze the factors considered in producing potentially bioresorbable/degradable 3D-printed templates and their influence on BTR in calvarial bone defect (CBD) animal models. In addition, a meta-analysis was done to compare the achieved BTR for each type of template material (polymer, ceramic or composites). Database collection was completed by January 2018, and the inclusion criteria were all titles and keywords combining 3D printing and BTR in CBD models. Clinical trials and poorly-documented in vivo studies were excluded from this study. A total of 45 relevant studies were finally included and reviewed, and an additional check list was followed before inclusion in the meta-analysis, where material type, porosity %, and the regenerated bone area were collected and analyzed statistically. Overall, the capacity of the printed templates to support BTR was found to depend in large part on the amount of available space (porosity %) provided by the printed templates. Printed ceramic and composite templates showed the best BTR capacity, and the optimum printed template structure was found to have total porosity >50% with a pore diameter between 300 and 400 µm. Additional features and engineered macro-channels within the printed templates increased BTR capacity at long time points (12 weeks). Although the size of bone defects in rabbits was larger than in rats, BTR was greater in rabbits (almost double) at all time points and for all materials used. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: In the present study, we reviewed the factors considered in producing degradable 3D-printed templates and their influence on bone tissue regeneration (BTR) in calvarial bone defects through the last 15 years. A meta-analysis was applied on the collected data to quantify and analyze BTR related to each type of template material. The concluded data states the importance of 3D-printed templates for BTR and indicates the ideal design required for an effective clinical translation. The evidence-based guidelines for the best BTR capacity endorse the use of printed composite and ceramic templates with total porosity >50%, pore diameter between 300 and 400 µm, and added engineered macro-channels within the printed templates.
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Cai Z, Wan Y, Becker ML, Long YZ, Dean D. Poly(propylene fumarate)-based materials: Synthesis, functionalization, properties, device fabrication and biomedical applications. Biomaterials 2019; 208:45-71. [PMID: 30991217 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2019.03.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) is a biodegradable polymer that has been investigated extensively over the last three decades. It has led many scientists to synthesize and fabricate a variety of PPF-based materials for biomedical applications due to its controllable mechanical properties, tunable degradation and biocompatibility. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the progress made in improving PPF synthesis, resin formulation, crosslinking, device fabrication and post polymerization modification. Further, we highlight the influence of these parameters on biodegradation, biocompatibility, and their use in a number of regenerative medicine applications, especially bone tissue engineering. In particular, the use of 3D printing techniques for the fabrication of PPF-based scaffolds is extensively reviewed. The recent invention of a ring-opening polymerization method affords precise control of PPF molecular mass, molecular mass distribution (ƉM) and viscosity. Low ƉM facilitates time-certain resorption of 3D printed structures. Novel post-polymerization and post-printing functionalization methods have accelerated the expansion of biomedical applications that utilize PPF-based materials. Finally, we shed light on evolving uses of PPF-based materials for orthopedics/bone tissue engineering and other biomedical applications, including its use as a hydrogel for bioprinting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongyu Cai
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, 117585, Singapore; Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Chevron Science Center, 219 Parkman Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, United States.
| | - Yong Wan
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Nanomaterials, College of Physics, Qingdao University, No. 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao, 266071, Shandong Province, China
| | - Matthew L Becker
- Department of Polymer Science, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, United States
| | - Yun-Ze Long
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Nanomaterials, College of Physics, Qingdao University, No. 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao, 266071, Shandong Province, China; Industrial Research Institute of Nonwovens & Technical Textiles, Qingdao University, No. 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao, 266071, Shandong Province, China.
| | - David Dean
- Department of Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States.
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Comrie ML, Monteith G, Zur Linden A, Oblak M, Phillips J, James FMK. The accuracy of computed tomography scans for rapid prototyping of canine skulls. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0214123. [PMID: 30908536 PMCID: PMC6433237 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
This study’s objective was to determine the accuracy of using current computed tomography (CT) scan and software techniques for rapid prototyping by quantifying the margin of error between CT models and laser scans of canine skull specimens. Twenty canine skulls of varying morphology were selected from an anatomy collection at a veterinary school. CT scans (bone and standard algorithms) were performed for each skull, and data segmented (testing two lower threshold settings of 226HU and -650HU) into 3-D CT models. Laser scans were then performed on each skull. The CT models were compared to the corresponding laser scan to determine the error generated from the different types of CT model parameters. This error was then compared between the different types of CT models to determine the most accurate parameters. The mean errors for the 226HU CT models, both bone and standard algorithms, were not significant from zero error (p = 0.1076 and p = 0.0580, respectively). The mean errors for both -650HU CT models were significant from zero error (p < 0.001). Significant differences were detected between CT models for 3 CT model comparisons: Bone (p < 0.0001); Standard (p < 0.0001); and -650HU (p < 0.0001). For 226HU CT models, a significant difference was not detected between CT models (p = 0.2268). Independent of the parameters tested, the 3-D models derived from CT imaging accurately represent the real skull dimensions, with CT models differing less than 0.42 mm from the real skull dimensions. The 226HU threshold was more accurate than the -650HU threshold. For the 226HU CT models, accuracy was not dependent on the CT algorithm. For the -650 CT models, bone was more accurate than standard algorithms. Knowing the inherent error of this procedure is important for use in 3-D printing for surgical planning and medical education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela L. Comrie
- Department Human Health and Nutritional Science, College of Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Gabrielle Monteith
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Alex Zur Linden
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michelle Oblak
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - John Phillips
- Centre for Advanced Manufacturing and Design Technologies, Sheridan College, Brampton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Fiona M. K. James
- Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Kim SE, Shim KM, Jang K, Shim JH, Kang SS. Three-Dimensional Printing-based Reconstruction of a Maxillary Bone Defect in a Dog Following Tumor Removal. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 32:63-70. [PMID: 29275300 DOI: 10.21873/invivo.11205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printing has been applied extensively not only in human, but also veterinary medicine. However, the technique is still used in the clinical area for a surgical plan or education prior to surgery. Thus, we report a case of reconstruction after tumor removal surgery with the use of a 3D-printed scaffold. A 12-year-old female mixed dog had a left caudal maxillary mass. Based on computed tomography images, a defect was confirmed on the maxillary bone due to the oral mass, and a surgical plan was designed to remove the oral mass and graft the 3D printed scaffold. Customized polycaprolactone/ beta-tracalciumphosphate (PCL/β-TCP) scaffold was fabricated using the micro-extrusion-based 3D printer. In the operation, after the removal of the oral mass, the scaffold was grafted onto the defect site. At follow-up, 8 months after surgery, the result was successful without any special problems in the periodic CT scans and oral examinations. This case is believed to be the first case of reconstruction by using a 3D printed scaffold in the maxillary bone defect, and this 3D printing technique is thought to be very helpful for veterinary patients with bone defects and several other diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Se Eun Kim
- Biomaterial R&BD Center, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea.,Department of Veterinary surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine and BK21 Plus Project Team, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Mi Shim
- Biomaterial R&BD Center, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea.,Department of Veterinary surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine and BK21 Plus Project Team, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwangsik Jang
- Biomaterial R&BD Center, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea.,Department of Veterinary surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine and BK21 Plus Project Team, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Hyung Shim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea Polytechnic University, Siheung, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong Soo Kang
- Biomaterial R&BD Center, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea .,Department of Veterinary surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine and BK21 Plus Project Team, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
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Hasan A, Byambaa B, Morshed M, Cheikh MI, Shakoor RA, Mustafy T, Marei HE. Advances in osteobiologic materials for bone substitutes. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2018; 12:1448-1468. [DOI: 10.1002/term.2677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 02/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Anwarul Hasan
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering; Qatar University; Doha Qatar
| | - Batzaya Byambaa
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine; Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School; Cambridge MA USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology; Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Cambridge MA USA
| | - Mahboob Morshed
- School of Life Sciences; Independent University, Bangladesh (IUB); Dhaka Bangladesh
| | - Mohammad Ibrahim Cheikh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture; American University of Beirut; Beirut Lebanon
| | | | - Tanvir Mustafy
- Department of Mechanical Engineering; Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal; Quebec Canada
| | - Hany E. Marei
- Biomedical Research Center; Qatar University; Doha Qatar
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Xie H, Ji Y, Tian Q, Wang X, Zhang N, Zhang Y, Xu J, Wang N, Yan J. Autogenous bone particle/titanium fiber composites for bone regeneration in a rabbit radius critical-size defect model. Connect Tissue Res 2017; 58:553-561. [PMID: 28095112 DOI: 10.1080/03008207.2017.1281259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To explore the effects of autogenous bone particle/titanium fiber composites on repairing segmental bone defects in rabbits. MATERIALS AND METHODS A model of bilateral radial bone defect was established in 36 New Zealand white rabbits which were randomly divided into 3 groups according to filling materials used for bilaterally defect treatment: in group C, 9 animal bone defect areas were prepared into simple bilateral radius bone defect (empty sham) as the control group; 27 rabbits were used in groups ABP and ABP-Ti. In group ABP, left defects were simply implanted with autogenous bone particles; meanwhile, group ABP-Ti animals had right defects implanted with autogenous bone particle/titanium fiber composites. Animals were sacrificed at 4, 8, and 12 weeks, respectively, after operation. RESULTS Micro-CT showed that group C could not complete bone regeneration. Bone volume to tissue volume values in group ABP-Ti were better than group ABP. From histology and histomorphometry Groups ABP and ABP-Ti achieved bone repair, the bone formation of group ABP-Ti was better. The mechanical strength of group ABP-Ti was superior to that of other groups. CONCLUSIONS These results confirmed the effectiveness of autologous bone particle/titanium fiber composites for promoting bone regeneration and mechanical strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanxin Xie
- a Department of Orthopaedic Surgery , the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University , Harbin , China
| | - Ye Ji
- a Department of Orthopaedic Surgery , the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University , Harbin , China
| | - Qi Tian
- b Department of Stomatology, Zhaochunyu Dental Clinic , Harbin , China
| | - Xintao Wang
- a Department of Orthopaedic Surgery , the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University , Harbin , China
| | - Nan Zhang
- c Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Qiqihar Medical College , Qiqihar , China
| | - Yicai Zhang
- d Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Harbin the First Hospital , Harbin , China
| | - Jun Xu
- a Department of Orthopaedic Surgery , the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University , Harbin , China
| | - Nanxiang Wang
- a Department of Orthopaedic Surgery , the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University , Harbin , China
| | - Jinglong Yan
- a Department of Orthopaedic Surgery , the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University , Harbin , China
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Shim KS, Kim SE, Yun YP, Jeon DI, Kim HJ, Park K, Song HR. Surface immobilization of biphasic calcium phosphate nanoparticles on 3D printed poly(caprolactone) scaffolds enhances osteogenesis and bone tissue regeneration. J IND ENG CHEM 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2017.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Shim KS, Kim SE, Yun YP, Choi S, Kim HJ, Park K, Song HR. Biphasic Calcium Phosphate (BCP)-Immobilized Porous Poly (d,l-Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid) Microspheres Enhance Osteogenic Activities of Osteoblasts. Polymers (Basel) 2017; 9:polym9070297. [PMID: 30970975 PMCID: PMC6432369 DOI: 10.3390/polym9070297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Revised: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential of porous poly (d,l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres (PMSs) immobilized on biphasic calcium phosphate nanoparticles (BCP NPs) (BCP-IM-PMSs) to enhance osteogenic activity. PMSs were fabricated using a fluidic device, and their surfaces were modified with l-lysine (aminated-PMSs), whereas the BCP NPs were modified with heparin⁻dopamine (Hep-DOPA) to obtain heparinized⁻BCP (Hep-BCP) NPs. BCP-IM-PMSs were fabricated via electrostatic interactions between the Hep-BCP NPs and aminated-PMSs. The fabricated BCP-IM-PMSs showed an interconnected pore structure. In vitro studies showed that MG-63 cells cultured on BCP-IM-PMSs had increased alkaline phosphatase activity, calcium content, and mRNA expression of osteocalcin (OCN) and osteopontin (OPN) compared with cells cultured on PMSs. These data suggest that BCP NP-immobilized PMSs have the potential to enhance osteogenic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyu-Sik Shim
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Medicine, Korea University, Anam-dong, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Korea.
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Rare Diseases Institute, Korea University Medical College, Guro Hospital, #80, Guro-dong, Guro-gu, Seoul 08308, Korea.
| | - Sung Eun Kim
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Rare Diseases Institute, Korea University Medical College, Guro Hospital, #80, Guro-dong, Guro-gu, Seoul 08308, Korea.
| | - Young-Pil Yun
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Rare Diseases Institute, Korea University Medical College, Guro Hospital, #80, Guro-dong, Guro-gu, Seoul 08308, Korea.
| | - Somang Choi
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Medicine, Korea University, Anam-dong, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Korea.
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Rare Diseases Institute, Korea University Medical College, Guro Hospital, #80, Guro-dong, Guro-gu, Seoul 08308, Korea.
| | - Hak-Jun Kim
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Rare Diseases Institute, Korea University Medical College, Guro Hospital, #80, Guro-dong, Guro-gu, Seoul 08308, Korea.
| | - Kyeongsoon Park
- Department of Systems Biotechnology, College of Biotechnology and Natural Resources, Chung-Ang University, 4726 Seodong-daero, Daedeok-myeon, Anseong-si, Gyeonggi-do 17546, Korea.
| | - Hae-Ryong Song
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Rare Diseases Institute, Korea University Medical College, Guro Hospital, #80, Guro-dong, Guro-gu, Seoul 08308, Korea.
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Guillaume O, Geven M, Sprecher C, Stadelmann V, Grijpma D, Tang T, Qin L, Lai Y, Alini M, de Bruijn J, Yuan H, Richards R, Eglin D. Surface-enrichment with hydroxyapatite nanoparticles in stereolithography-fabricated composite polymer scaffolds promotes bone repair. Acta Biomater 2017; 54:386-398. [PMID: 28286037 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Fabrication of composite scaffolds using stereolithography (SLA) for bone tissue engineering has shown great promises. However, in order to trigger effective bone formation and implant integration, exogenous growth factors are commonly combined to scaffold materials. In this study, we fabricated biodegradable composite scaffolds using SLA and endowed them with osteopromotive properties in the absence of biologics. First we prepared photo-crosslinkable poly(trimethylene carbonate) (PTMC) resins containing 20 and 40wt% of hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles and fabricated scaffolds with controlled macro-architecture. Then, we conducted experiments to investigate how the incorporation of HA in photo-crosslinked PTMC matrices improved human bone marrow stem cells osteogenic differentiation in vitro and kinetic of bone healing in vivo. We observed that bone regeneration was significantly improved using composite scaffolds containing as low as 20wt% of HA, along with difference in terms of osteogenesis and degree of implant osseointegration. Further investigations revealed that SLA process was responsible for the formation of a rich microscale layer of HA corralling scaffolds. To summarize, this work is of substantial importance as it shows how the fabrication of hierarchical biomaterials via surface-enrichment of functional HA nanoparticles in composite polymer stereolithographic structures could impact in vitro and in vivo osteogenesis. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE This study reports for the first time the enhance osteopromotion of composite biomaterials, with controlled macro-architecture and microscale distribution of hydroxyapatite particles, manufactured by stereolithography. In this process, the hydroxyapatite particles are not only embedded into an erodible polymer matrix, as reported so far in the literature, but concentrated at the surface of the structures. This leads to robust in vivo bone formation at low concentration of hydroxyapatite. The reported 3D self-corralling composite architecture provides significant opportunities to develop functional biomaterials for bone repair and tissue engineering.
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Luangphakdy V, Boehm C, Pan H, Herrick J, Zaveri P, Muschler GF. Assessment of Methods for Rapid Intraoperative Concentration and Selection of Marrow-Derived Connective Tissue Progenitors for Bone Regeneration Using the Canine Femoral Multidefect Model. Tissue Eng Part A 2016; 22:17-30. [PMID: 26538088 PMCID: PMC5028130 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2014.0663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Treatment of large bone defects remains an unsolved clinical challenge, despite a wide array of existing bone graft materials and strategies. Local deficiency in osteogenic connective tissue progenitors (CTP-Os) due to tissue loss is one of the central biological barriers to bone regeneration. Density separation (DS) and selective retention (SR) represent two promising methods that can be used intraoperatively to rapidly concentrate cells and potentially select CTP-Os. This project was designed to compare DS and SR using the canine femoral multidefect (CFMD) model. Mineralized cancellous allograft (MCA) was used as a standardized scaffold for cell transplantation. Two experiments were performed using a cohort of six animals in each comparison. In Cohort I, unprocessed bone marrow aspirate (BMA) clot was compared to DS processing. MCA combined with raw BMA or DS processed cells produced a robust and advanced stage of bone regeneration throughout the defect in 4 weeks with reconstitution of hematopoietic marrow. However, the retention of DS processed cells and CTP-Os in the MCA matrix was low compared to BMA clot. In Cohort II, MCA with DS-T cells (addition of calcium chloride thrombin to induce clotting and enhance cell and CTP-O retention) was compared to MCA with SR cells. A mean of 276 ± 86 million nucleated cells and 29,030 ± 10,510 CTP-Os were implanted per defect in the DS-T group. A mean of 76 ± 42 million nucleated cells and 30,266 ± 15,850 CTP-Os were implanted in the SR group. Bone formation was robust and not different between treatments. Histologically, both groups demonstrated regeneration of hematopoietic marrow tissue. However, SR sites contained more hematopoietic vascular tissues, less fibrosis, and less residual allograft, particularly in the intramedullary cavity, suggesting a more advanced stage of remodeling (p = 0.04). These data demonstrate excellent overall performance of DS and SR processing methods. Both methods achieve a bone regeneration response that approaches the limits of performance that can be achieved in the CFMD model. Further advancement and comparison of these intraoperative bone marrow cell processing methods will require use of a larger and more biologically compromised defect site to guide the next steps of preclinical development and optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane Luangphakdy
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering (ND20), Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic , Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Cynthia Boehm
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering (ND20), Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic , Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Hui Pan
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering (ND20), Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic , Cleveland, Ohio
| | - James Herrick
- 2 Bone Histomorphometry Core Lab, Department of Orthopedics, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine , Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Phil Zaveri
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering (ND20), Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic , Cleveland, Ohio
| | - George F Muschler
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering (ND20), Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic , Cleveland, Ohio.,3 Department of Orthopoedic Surgery, Cleveland Clinic , Cleveland, Ohio
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15
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Bechtold JE, Swider P, Goreham-Voss C, Soballe K. Experimental and Numerical Models of Complex Clinical Scenarios; Strategies to Improve Relevance and Reproducibility of Joint Replacement Research. J Biomech Eng 2016; 138:021008. [PMID: 26720312 DOI: 10.1115/1.4032368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
This research review aims to focus attention on the effect of specific surgical and host factors on implant fixation, and the importance of accounting for them in experimental and numerical models. These factors affect (a) eventual clinical applicability and (b) reproducibility of findings across research groups. Proper function and longevity for orthopedic joint replacement implants relies on secure fixation to the surrounding bone. Technology and surgical technique has improved over the last 50 years, and robust ingrowth and decades of implant survival is now routinely achieved for healthy patients and first-time (primary) implantation. Second-time (revision) implantation presents with bone loss with interfacial bone gaps in areas vital for secure mechanical fixation. Patients with medical comorbidities such as infection, smoking, congestive heart failure, kidney disease, and diabetes have a diminished healing response, poorer implant fixation, and greater revision risk. It is these more difficult clinical scenarios that require research to evaluate more advanced treatment approaches. Such treatments can include osteogenic or antimicrobial implant coatings, allo- or autogenous cellular or tissue-based approaches, local and systemic drug delivery, surgical approaches. Regarding implant-related approaches, most experimental and numerical models do not generally impose conditions that represent mechanical instability at the implant interface, or recalcitrant healing. Many treatments will work well in forgiving settings, but fail in complex human settings with disease, bone loss, or previous surgery. Ethical considerations mandate that we justify and limit the number of animals tested, which restricts experimental permutations of treatments. Numerical models provide flexibility to evaluate multiple parameters and combinations, but generally need to employ simplifying assumptions. The objectives of this paper are to (a) to highlight the importance of mechanical, material, and surgical features to influence implant-bone healing, using a selection of results from two decades of coordinated experimental and numerical work and (b) discuss limitations of such models and the implications for research reproducibility. Focusing model conditions toward the clinical scenario to be studied, and limiting conclusions to the conditions of a particular model can increase clinical relevance and research reproducibility.
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16
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A novel suture anchor constructed of cortical bone for rotator cuff repair: a biomechanical study on sheep humerus specimens. INTERNATIONAL ORTHOPAEDICS 2016; 40:1913-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s00264-016-3185-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/27/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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17
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Baker KC, Maerz T, Saad H, Shaheen P, Kannan RM. In vivo bone formation by and inflammatory response to resorbable polymer-nanoclay constructs. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2015.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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18
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Tethering of Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) to Beta Tricalcium Phosphate (βTCP) via Fusion to a High Affinity, Multimeric βTCP-Binding Peptide: Effects on Human Multipotent Stromal Cells/Connective Tissue Progenitors. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129600. [PMID: 26121597 PMCID: PMC4488278 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Transplantation of freshly-aspirated autologous bone marrow, together with a scaffold, is a promising clinical alternative to harvest and transplantation of autologous bone for treatment of large defects. However, survival proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation of the marrow-resident stem and progenitor cells with osteogenic potential can be limited in large defects by the inflammatory microenvironment. Previous studies using EGF tethered to synthetic polymer substrates have demonstrated that surface-tethered EGF can protect human bone marrow-derived osteogenic stem and progenitor cells from pro-death inflammatory cues and enhance their proliferation without detriment to subsequent osteogenic differentiation. The objective of this study was to identify a facile means of tethering EGF to clinically-relevant βTCP scaffolds and to demonstrate the bioactivity of EGF tethered to βTCP using stimulation of the proliferative response of human bone-marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSC) as a phenotypic metric. We used a phage display library and panned against βTCP and composites of βTCP with a degradable polyester biomaterial, together with orthogonal blocking schemes, to identify a 12-amino acid consensus binding peptide sequence, LLADTTHHRPWT, with high affinity for βTCP. When a single copy of this βTCP-binding peptide sequence was fused to EGF via a flexible peptide tether domain and expressed recombinantly in E. coli together with a maltose-binding domain to aid purification, the resulting fusion protein exhibited modest affinity for βTCP. However, a fusion protein containing a linear concatamer containing 10 repeats of the binding motif the resulting fusion protein showed high affinity stable binding to βTCP, with only 25% of the protein released after 7 days at 37oC. The fusion protein was bioactive, as assessed by its abilities to activate kinase signaling pathways downstream of the EGF receptor when presented in soluble form, and to enhance the proliferation of hBMSC when presented in tethered form on commercial βTCP bone regeneration scaffolds.
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19
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Yusop AHM, Daud NM, Nur H, Kadir MRA, Hermawan H. Controlling the degradation kinetics of porous iron by poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) infiltration for use as temporary medical implants. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11194. [PMID: 26057073 PMCID: PMC4460907 DOI: 10.1038/srep11194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron and its alloy have been proposed as biodegradable metals for temporary medical implants. However, the formation of iron oxide and iron phosphate on their surface slows down their degradation kinetics in both in vitro and in vivo scenarios. This work presents new approach to tailor degradation behavior of iron by incorporating biodegradable polymers into the metal. Porous pure iron (PPI) was vacuum infiltrated by poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) to form fully dense PLGA-infiltrated porous iron (PIPI) and dip coated into the PLGA to form partially dense PLGA-coated porous iron (PCPI). Results showed that compressive strength and toughness of the PIPI and PCPI were higher compared to PPI. A strong interfacial interaction was developed between the PLGA layer and the iron surface. Degradation rate of PIPI and PCPI was higher than that of PPI due to the effect of PLGA hydrolysis. The fast degradation of PIPI did not affect the viability of human fibroblast cells. Finally, this work discusses a degradation mechanism for PIPI and the effect of PLGA incorporation in accelerating the degradation of iron.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul Hakim Md Yusop
- Medical Devices Technology Group (MediTeg), Faculty of Biosciences and Medical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, 81310, Malaysia
| | - Nurizzati Mohd Daud
- Medical Devices Technology Group (MediTeg), Faculty of Biosciences and Medical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, 81310, Malaysia
| | - Hadi Nur
- Center for Sustainable Nanomaterials, Ibnu Sina Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, 81310, Malaysia
| | - Mohammed Rafiq Abdul Kadir
- Medical Devices Technology Group (MediTeg), Faculty of Biosciences and Medical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, 81310, Malaysia
| | - Hendra Hermawan
- Medical Devices Technology Group (MediTeg), Faculty of Biosciences and Medical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, 81310, Malaysia
- Dept. of Mining, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering & CHU de Québec Research Center, Laval University, Quebec City, G1V 0A6, Canada
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20
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Bigham-Sadegh A, Oryan A. Selection of animal models for pre-clinical strategies in evaluating the fracture healing, bone graft substitutes and bone tissue regeneration and engineering. Connect Tissue Res 2015; 56:175-94. [PMID: 25803622 DOI: 10.3109/03008207.2015.1027341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
In vitro assays can be useful in determining biological mechanism and optimizing scaffold parameters, however translation of the in vitro results to clinics is generally hard. Animal experimentation is a better approximation than in vitro tests, and usage of animal models is often essential in extrapolating the experimental results and translating the information in a human clinical setting. In addition, usage of animal models to study fracture healing is useful to answer questions related to the most effective method to treat humans. There are several factors that should be considered when selecting an animal model. These include availability of the animal, cost, ease of handling and care, size of the animal, acceptability to society, resistance to surgery, infection and disease, biological properties analogous to humans, bone structure and composition, as well as bone modeling and remodeling characteristics. Animal experiments on bone healing have been conducted on small and large animals, including mice, rats, rabbits, dogs, pigs, goats and sheep. This review also describes the molecular events during various steps of fracture healing and explains different means of fracture healing evaluation including biomechanical, histopathological and radiological assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin Bigham-Sadegh
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Surgery and Radiology, Shahrekord University , Shahrekord , Iran and
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21
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Wang T, Yang X, Qi X, Jiang C. Osteoinduction and proliferation of bone-marrow stromal cells in three-dimensional poly (ε-caprolactone)/ hydroxyapatite/collagen scaffolds. J Transl Med 2015; 13:152. [PMID: 25952675 PMCID: PMC4429830 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-015-0499-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Osteoinduction and proliferation of bone-marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) in three-dimensional (3D) poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) scaffolds have not been studied throughly and are technically challenging. This study aimed to optimize nanocomposites of 3D PCL scaffolds to provide superior adhesion, proliferation and differentiation environment for BMSCs in this scenario. METHODS BMSCs were isolated and cultured in a novel 3D tissue culture poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) scaffold coated with poly-lysine, hydroxyapatite (HAp), collagen and HAp/collagen. Cell morphology was observed and BMSC biomarkers for osteogenesis, osteoblast differentiation and activation were analyzed. RESULTS Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) micrographs showed that coating materials were uniformly deposited on the surface of PCL scaffolds and BMSCs grew and aggregated to form clusters during 3D culture. Both mRNA and protein levels of the key players of osteogenesis and osteoblast differentiation and activation, including runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2), alkaline phosphates (ALP), osterix, osteocalcin, and RANKL, were significantly higher in BMSCs seeded in PCL scaffolds coated with HAp or HAp/collagen than those seeded in uncoated PCL scaffolds, whereas the expression levels were not significantly different in collagen or poly-lysine coated PCL scaffolds. In addition, poly-lysine, collagen, HAp/collagen, and HAp coated PCL scaffolds had significantly more viable cells than uncoated PCL scaffolds, especially scaffolds with HAp/collagen and collagen-alone coatings. That BMSCs in HAp or HAp/collagen PCL scaffolds had remarkably higher ALP activities than those in collagen-coated alone or uncoated PCL scaffolds indicating higher osteogenic differentiation levels of BMSCs in HAp or HAp/collagen PCL scaffolds. Moreover, morphological changes of BMSCs after four-week of 3D culture confirmed that BMSCs successfully differentiated into osteoblast with spread-out phenotype in HAp/collagen coated PCL scaffolds. CONCLUSION This study showed a proof of concept for preparing biomimetic 3D poly (ε-caprolactone)/ hydroxyapatite/collagen scaffolds with excellent osteoinduction and proliferation capacity for bone regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, No.600 Yishan Rd, Shanghai, 200233, China.
| | - Xiaoyan Yang
- Department of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60208, USA.
| | - Xin Qi
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, No.600 Yishan Rd, Shanghai, 200233, China.
| | - Chaoyin Jiang
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, No.600 Yishan Rd, Shanghai, 200233, China.
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22
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Henkel J, Hutmacher DW. Design and fabrication of scaffold-based tissue engineering. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1515/bnm-2013-0021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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