Nursing home characteristics and the development of pressure sores and disruptive behaviour

Risk factors for pressure ulcers in adult patients: A meta-analysis on sociodemographic factors and the Braden scale

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Providing the first meta-analysis of risk factors for pressure ulcer development in adult patients.

BACKGROUND

Pressure ulcers remain a serious health complication for patients and nursing staff. However, there is a lack of statistical evidence for risk factors as previous research did not include any quantitative synthesis.

DESIGN

Meta-analysis, using PRISMA guidelines.

METHODS

Studies from PubMed, Embase, CINAHL Complete, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and other reviews and sources were screened and checked against the inclusion criteria. The risk of bias was evaluated using a slightly modified QUIPS tool. Data regarding population, design, statistical analysis and risk factors were extracted. Meta-analysis with comparable studies was conducted for age, sex, and Braden scale. The sub-group analysis was used to account for heterogeneity.

RESULTS

28 studies with 570,162 patients were entered in meta-analysis. Older age and a low total Braden scale score increased the risk for pressure ulcers. All subscales excluding 'moisture' reached significance in meta-analysis based only on few studies, however, limiting overall evidence. Male sex achieved mixed results, too.

CONCLUSION

The first meta-analytic analysis shows evidence for age and Braden scale as risk factors for pressure ulcer development. Limitations regarding study quality and heterogeneity must be considered, highlighting the need for unifying certain conditions in risk factor research.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

Patients at risk for new pressure ulcers can be identified by their total Braden score and age, whereas the latter is also connected to deeper pressure ulcers. Nurses and health personnel should pay great attention to patients in older age and undergo specific training to utilise and evaluate the Braden scale effectively, if necessary.

Risk Factors for Pressure Injuries in Adult Patients: A Narrative Synthesis

Pressure injuries remain a serious health complication for patients and nursing staff. Evidence from the past decade has not been analysed through narrative synthesis yet. PubMed, Embase, CINAHL Complete, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and other reviews/sources were screened. Risk of bias was evaluated using a slightly modified QUIPS tool. Risk factor domains were used to assign (non)statistically independent risk factors. Hence, 67 studies with 679,660 patients were included. In low to moderate risk of bias studies, non-blanchable erythema reliably predicted pressure injury stage 2. Factors influencing mechanical boundary conditions, e.g., higher interface pressure or BMI < 18.5, as well as factors affecting interindividual susceptibility (male sex, older age, anemia, hypoalbuminemia, diabetes, hypotension, low physical activity, existing pressure injuries) and treatment-related aspects, such as length of stay in intensive care units, were identified as possible risk factors for pressure injury development. Health care professionals' evidence-based knowledge of above-mentioned risk factors is vital to ensure optimal prevention and/or treatment. Openly accessible risk factors, e.g., sex, age, BMI, pre-existing diabetes, and non-blanchable erythema, can serve as yellow flags for pressure injury development. Close communication concerning further risk factors, e.g., anemia, hypoalbuminemia, or low physical activity, may optimize prevention and/or treatment. Further high-quality evidence is warranted.

Higher hospital referral concentration associated with lower-risk patients in skilled nursing facilities

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether stronger referral relationships between hospitals and skilled nursing facilities (SNF) are associated with lower-risk patients being admitted to SNF.

DATA SOURCES/COLLECTION

We used MedPAR data to estimate referral relationship strength and nursing home survey data (OSCAR and CASPER) to determine the risk of patient admissions at nearly 14 000 SNFs from 2008 to 2014.

STUDY DESIGN

We examined the association of hospital referral concentration with the percentage of higher-risk patients admitted to non-hospital-based (freestanding) SNFs using an instrumental variables approach. We used the distance between patients and SNFs and hospitals and SNFs as the instrument.

DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHODS

We used previously collected MedPAR and OSCAR/CASPER survey data.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We find greater observed referral concentration among freestanding SNFs is associated with lower percentages of patients with pressure sores (coefficient, -2.64; 95% CI, [-2.82 to -2.46]), catheters (-0.55; [-0.74 to -0.36]), and physical restraints (-0.16; [-0.29 to -0.03]) at admission to a skilled nursing facility.

CONCLUSIONS

We find evidence that freestanding SNFs with stronger hospital referral relationships may be admitting less risky patients, possibly contributing to disparities across SNFs.

Nursing Home Closures and Quality of Care

The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between quality of care in nursing homes and their likelihood of closure. We hypothesize that lower-quality facilities will be more likely to close than higher-quality facilities. Using the rates of physical restraint use, urethral catheterization, contractures, pressure ulcers, and psychotropic medication use as quality measures from approximately 12,000 facilities from 1992 to 1998, the author examine cross-sectional and change score relationships between these measures and a nursing home’s likelihood of closure. The descriptive analysis shows that 621 nursing homes closed in this time period, and the results for physical restraint use were robust in their positive association with closures in most analyses lending some support for this study’s hypothesis. However, overall, the author concludes that nursing facility closures are relatively rare events. And the likelihood of closure, even for poor-quality facilities, is low.

Pressure UlceR Programme Of reSEarch (PURPOSE): using mixed methods (systematic reviews, prospective cohort, case study, consensus and psychometrics) to identify patient and organisational risk, develop a risk assessment tool and patient-reported outcome Quality of Life and Health Utility measures

Background

The Pressure UlceR Programme Of reSEarch (PURPOSE) consisted of two themes. Theme 1 focused on improving our understanding of individuals’ and organisational risk factors and on improving the quality of risk assessments (work packages 1–3) and theme 2 focused on developing patient-reported outcome measures (work packages 4 and 5).

Methods

The programme comprised 21 individual pieces of work. Pain: (1) multicentre pain prevalence study in acute hospitals, (2) multicentre pain prevalence study in community localities incorporating (3) a comparison of case-finding methods, and (4) multicentre, prospective cohort study. Severe pressure ulcers: (5) retrospective case study, (6) patient involvement workshop with the Pressure Ulcer Research Service User Network for the UK (PURSUN UK) and (7) development of root cause analysis methodology. Risk assessment: (8) systematic review, (9) consensus study, (10) conceptual framework development and theoretical causal pathway, (11) design and pretesting of draft Risk Assessment Framework and (12) field test to assess reliability, validity, data completeness and clinical usability. Quality of life: (13) conceptual framework development (systematic review, patient interviews), (14 and 15) provisional instrument development, with items generated from patient interviews [from (1) above] two systematic reviews and experts, (16) pretesting of the provisional Pressure Ulcer Quality of Life (PU-QOL) instrument using mixed methods, (17) field test 1 including (18) optimal mode of administration substudy and item reduction with testing of scale formation, acceptability, scaling assumptions, reliability and validity, and (19) field test 2 – final psychometric evaluation to test scale targeting, item response categories, item fit, response bias, acceptability, scaling assumptions, reliability and validity. Cost–utility: (20) time trade-off task valuations of health states derived from selected PU-QOL items, and (21) validation of the items selected and psychometric properties of the new Pressure Ulcer Quality of Life Utility Index (PUQOL-UI).

Key findings

Pain: prevalence studies – hospital and community patients experience both pressure area-related and pressure ulcer pain; pain cohort study – indicates that pain is independently predictive of category 2 (and above) pressure ulcer development. Severe pressure ulcers: these were more likely to develop in contexts in which clinicians failed to listen to patients/carers or recognise/respond to high risk or the presence of an existing pressure ulcer and services were not effectively co-ordinated; service users found the interactive workshop format valuable; including novel components (interviews with patients and carers) in root cause analysis improves the quality of the insights captured. Risk assessment: we developed a Pressure Ulcer Risk Assessment Framework, the PURPOSE-T, incorporating the Minimum Data Set, a screening stage, a full assessment stage, use of colour to support decision-making, and decision pathways that make a clear distinction between patients with an existing pressure ulcer(s) (or scarring from previous ulcers) who require secondary prevention and treatment and those at risk who require primary prevention (http://medhealth.leeds.ac.uk/accesspurposet). Quality of life: the final PU-QOL instrument consists of 10 scales to measure pain, exudate, odour, sleep, vitality, mobility/movement, daily activities, emotional well-being, self-consciousness and appearance, and participation (http://medhealth.leeds.ac.uk/puqol-ques). Cost–utility: seven items were selected from the PU-QOL instrument for inclusion in the PUQOL-UI (http://medhealth.leeds.ac.uk/puqol-ui); secondary study analysis indicated that item selection for the PUQOL-UI was appropriate and that the index was acceptable to patients and had adequate levels of validity.

Conclusions

The PURPOSE programme has provided important insights for pressure ulcer prevention and treatment and involvement of service users in research and development, with implications for patient and public involvement, clinical practice, quality/safety/health service management and research including replication of the pain risk factor study, work exploring ‘best practice’ settings, the impact of including skin status as an indicator for escalation of preventative interventions, further psychometric evaluation of PU-QOL and PUQOL-UI the measurement of ‘disease attribution.’

Funding

The National Institute for Health Research Programme Grants for Applied Research programme.

Impact of dual sensory impairment on onset of behavioral symptoms in European nursing homes: results from the Services and Health for Elderly in Long-Term Care study

OBJECTIVES

To investigate if dual sensory impairment (DSI) in the form of a combined visual and hearing impairment is associated with the onset of behavioral symptoms in nursing homes.

METHODS

A total of 1524 nursing home residents without behavioral symptoms at baseline followed for 12 months in 59 nursing homes from the Czech Republic, England, Finland, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, and The Netherlands. The interRAI instrument for long-term care facilities was assessed by trained staff at baseline and 12 months later.

RESULTS

Altogether, 11% of residents had a new onset of behavioral symptoms (wandering, verbal abuse, physical abuse, socially inappropriate behavior, public disrobing, and resisting care) at 12-month follow-up. In multivariate analyses adjusted for potential confounders, DSI residents had significantly higher incidence of new behavioral symptoms at 12-month follow-up, irrespective of the severity of vision and hearing impairments [odds ratio (OR) = 2.1, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.3:3.4 for mild DSI, OR = 2.5, 95% CI = 1.6:4.0 for moderate DSI, and OR = 2.1, 95% CI = 1.2:3.7 for severe DSI] compared with residents without sensory impairment. Among the different types of symptoms, only abusive behaviors were less likely to be associated with DSI.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides evidence that DSI could play a significant role in the development of behavioral symptoms in nursing home residents. More attention should be paid to DSI even when each of vision and hearing function is only minimally impaired.

Factors predicting the development of pressure ulcers in an at-risk population who receive standardized preventive care: secondary analyses of a multicentre randomised controlled trial

AIMS

To identify predictive factors associated with the development of pressure ulcers in patients at risk who receive standardized preventive care.

BACKGROUND

Numerous studies have examined factors that predict risk for pressure ulcer development. Only a few studies identified risk factors associated with pressure ulcer development in hospitalized patients receiving standardized preventive care.

DESIGN

Secondary analyses of data collected in a multicentre randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 610 consecutive patients at risk for pressure ulcer development (Braden Score <17) receiving standardized preventive care measures. Patient demographic information, data on skin and risk assessment, medical history and diagnosis were collected during 26 months (December 2007-January 2010). Predictive factors were identified using multivariate statistics.

RESULTS

Pressure ulcers in category II-IV were significantly associated with non-blanchable erythema, urogenital disorders and higher body temperature. Predictive factors significantly associated with superficial pressure ulcers were admission to an internal medicine ward, incontinence-associated dermatitis, non-blanchable erythema and a lower Braden score. Superficial sacral pressure ulcers were significantly associated with incontinence-associated dermatitis.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the standardized preventive measures they received, hospitalized patients with non-blanchable erythema, urogenital disorders and a higher body temperature were at increased risk for developing pressure ulcers.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

Improved identification of at-risk patients can be achieved by taking into account specific predictive factors. Even if preventive measures are in place, continuous assessment and tailoring of interventions is necessary in all patients at risk. Daily skin observation can be used to continuously monitor the effectiveness of the intervention.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of incontinence-associated dermatitis, incontinence, and moisture as risk factors for pressure ulcer development

The aim of this analysis was to identify the association between incontinence-associated dermatitis (IAD), its most important etiologic factors (incontinence and moisture), and pressure ulcers (PUs). A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed. We searched Medline, Embase, CINAHL, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library for relevant papers dating through March 15, 2013. Fifty-eight studies were included. Measures of relative effect at the univariate level were meta-analyzed. In most studies (86%), a significant association between variables of interest was found, with pooled odds ratios of PUs in univariate models between 1.92 (95% CI 1.54-2.38) for urinary incontinence and 4.99 (95% CI 2.62-9.50) for double incontinence (p < .05). This evidence indicates an association between IAD, its most important etiological factors, and PUs. Methodological issues should be considered when interpreting the results of this review.

Patient risk factors for pressure ulcer development: systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To identify risk factors independently predictive of pressure ulcer development in adult patient populations?

DESIGN

A systematic review of primary research was undertaken, based upon methods recommended for effectiveness questions but adapted to identify observational risk factor studies.

DATA SOURCES

Fourteen electronic databases were searched, each from inception until March 2010, with hand searching of specialist journals and conference proceedings; contact with experts and a citation search. There was no language restriction.

REVIEW METHODS

Abstracts were screened, reviewed against the eligibility criteria, data extracted and quality appraised by at least one reviewer and checked by a second. Where necessary, statistical review was undertaken. We developed an assessment framework and quality classification based upon guidelines for assessing quality and methodological considerations in the analysis, meta-analysis and publication of observational studies. Studies were classified as high, moderate, low and very low quality. Risk factors were categorised into risk factor domains and sub-domains. Evidence tables were generated and a summary narrative synthesis by sub-domain and domain was undertaken.

RESULTS

Of 5462 abstracts retrieved, 365 were identified as potentially eligible and 54 fulfilled the eligibility criteria. The 54 studies included 34,449 patients and acute and community patient populations. Seventeen studies were classified as high or moderate quality, whilst 37 studies (68.5%) had inadequate numbers of pressure ulcers and other methodological limitations. Risk factors emerging most frequently as independent predictors of pressure ulcer development included three primary domains of mobility/activity, perfusion (including diabetes) and skin/pressure ulcer status. Skin moisture, age, haematological measures, nutrition and general health status are also important, but did not emerge as frequently as the three main domains. Body temperature and immunity may be important but require further confirmatory research. There is limited evidence that either race or gender is important.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall there is no single factor which can explain pressure ulcer risk, rather a complex interplay of factors which increase the probability of pressure ulcer development. The review highlights the limitations of over-interpretation of results from individual studies and the benefits of reviewing results from a number of studies to develop a more reliable overall assessment of factors which are important in affecting patient susceptibility.

[Evaluation of the cost of treating pressure ulcers in hospitalized patients using industrialized dressings]

This work evaluated wound dresses used in the Neurosurgery Department of Restauração Hospital: polyurethane, hydrogel and activated carbon wound dresses and hydrogel with alginate used for pressure ulcer care. This work aimed to identify a critical factor that increases demand and cost of wound dresses. The evaluation conducted at the Neurosurgery Department identified individuals at risk of pressure ulcer development. Sixty-two patients were evaluated and the prevalence of pressure ulcer was 22.6% according to the Braden scale. Comparative evaluation between patients that didn't receive preventive measures and others that received, showed that the average daily cost of hospitalization for the first group was 45% higher than the mean for the second group. The Wilcoxon-Mann-Withiney test compared the population at risk to develop pressure ulcer and population at low risk showing that the evaluation of Braden Scale scores between the groups presents statistically significant differences and confidence limits of 95%. Pressure ulcer is a key quality indicator in health services.It is possible to reduce costs and offer higher quality public health services by implementing a training program of nursing staff using a preventive measure protocol based on a test to evaluate risk as Braden Scale.

The effect of state policies on nursing home resident outcomes

OBJECTIVES

To test the effect of changes in Medicaid reimbursement on clinical outcomes of long-stay nursing home (NH) residents.

DESIGN

Longitudinal, retrospective study of NHs, merging aggregated resident-level quality measures with facility characteristics and state policy survey data.

SETTING

All free-standing NHs in urban counties with at least 20 long-stay residents per quarter (length of stay > 90 days) in the continental United States between 1999 and 2005.

PARTICIPANTS

Long-stay NH residents

INTERVENTIONS

Annual state Medicaid average per diem reimbursement and the presence of case-mix reimbursement in each year.

MEASUREMENTS

Quarterly facility-aggregated, risk-adjusted quality-of-care measures surpassing a threshold for functional (activity of daily living) decline, physical restraint use, pressure ulcer incidence or worsening, and persistent pain.

RESULTS

All outcomes showed an improvement trend over the study period, particularly physical restraint use. Facility fixed-effect regressions revealed that a $10 increase in Medicaid payment increased the likelihood of a NH meeting quality thresholds by 9% for functional decline, 5% for pain control, and 2% for pressure ulcers but not reduced use of physical restraints. Facilities in states that increased Medicaid payment most showed the greatest improvement in outcomes. The introduction of case-mix reimbursement was unrelated to quality improvement.

CONCLUSION

Improvements in the clinical quality of NH care have been achieved, particularly where Medicaid payment has increased, generally from a lower baseline. Although this is a positive finding, challenges to implementing efficient reimbursement policies remain.

Association between rehabilitation care practices and care quality in long-term care facilities

This article analyzes the association between rehabilitation care practices and quality outcomes in Finland and represents unit-level (n = 256) associations between rehabilitation nursing and quality outcomes. Units classified as units providing a high frequency of rehabilitation care practices had better outcomes in 2 of 5 quality outcomes.

Cost and Quality

BACKGROUND

Although both quality and cost are important concerns for long term care (LTC) facility management and policy, the relationship between cost and quality is poorly understood. Such knowledge is necessary to guide facility management and policy action.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to determine the net effect of quality on cost in LTC hospital settings.

STUDY SAMPLE

A 4-year panel dataset from April 1997 through March 2002 comprising observations from 99 LTC hospitals were included in this analysis.

METHODS

We examined the relationship between direct resident costs and 7 indicators of quality for long-stay residents. We used panel data methods to control for unobserved facility-level characteristics.

RESULTS

We found that increases in restraint use and incident pressure/skin ulcers were associated with lower per diem costs, whereas incontinence prevalence was associated with higher per diem costs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results point to different implications regarding cost and quality for different quality indicators. Although facilities have a strong internal business case to improve quality in incontinence, policy-makers may need to provide financial incentives to encourage reductions in restraint use and incident skin ulcers so as to defray potential higher costs associated with improving quality in these areas.

The Development and Testing of a Questionnaire to Measure Complexity of Nursing Work Performed in Nursing Homes: NCCQ-NH

The quality of care in nursing homes has improved over the last 2 decades; however serious problems persist. Although staffing levels are a primary concern, studies show that ineffective management structures may be a contributing factor to poor quality care. Evidence suggests that the complexity of work performed within the organization is an important consideration in developing effective management structures. The purpose of this article is to describe the development and initial testing of an instrument to measure the complexity of nursing work in nursing homes. A sample of 168 nursing personnel (RNs, LPNs, CNAs) from 7 nursing homes participated in the study. The results of measures to determine the reliability and validity were generally acceptable for a new scale. A modified version of the original scale can be used to provide scientific evidence on which to base the design of management structures in nursing homes.

Economic assessment of pressure sore prevention using a computerized mattress system in patients with spinal cord injury

PURPOSE

To assess the economic profitability of a new computerized mattress system in patients with spinal cord injuries (SCI) by comparison with two other alternatives, as an example of the use of a quantitative approach for decision-making in choosing between alternatives for sore prevention.

METHOD

The cost of achieving one day without signs of impending pressure sore was compared between the alternative options using cost minimization analysis. Savings in nursing costs for the three options were calculated for cost-benefit analysis.

RESULTS

A foam mattress system is significantly cheaper than the other examined alternatives, and if the nursing manpower cost is constant and the nursing staff is capable of performing sufficient repositioning, this system would achieve the desired medical outcome at a minimal cost. However, if the nursing staff cannot perform sufficient repositioning, or if the use of nursing manpower can be adjusted to the actual need, then it is the computerized mattress system that achieves the desired outcome at the minimal cost. In this case, less than 20 New Israeli Shekels (NIS) per day spent on the equipment save NIS 45 per day in labor costs.

CONCLUSIONS

The economic evaluation indicates that the computerized mattress system is advisable for patients with SCI who require assistance for repositioning, but its profitability depends on the employment terms of the nursing manpower. In addition, other possible alternative pressure management systems should be examined, and additional research may be needed to determine the optimal combination of such systems for a spinal cord rehabilitation department.

High-grade decubitus ulcers in the elderly : A Postmortem Case-Control Study of Risk Factors

Some elderly persons develop high-grade decubitus ulcers, whereas others with comparable risk factors do not. In Germany, forensic pathologists are increasingly confronted by situations that necessitate an expert opinion on whether prevention of decubitus ulcers has been neglected in cases of suspected malpractice. This investigation was carried out in an attempt to identify risk factors for decubitus ulcers. We performed a postmortem case-control study in elderly persons who developed high-grade decubitus ulcers from 6 months to 14 days before death. Deceased with decubitus ulcers graded 3 or higher and controls at comparable risk were examined before cremation. After written informed consent had been obtained from the nearest living relatives, all available nursing and medical records of the deceased were thoroughly evaluated. Decubitus ulcer cases and controls were matched according to age, gender, immobility, and cachexia. One-hundred cases of decubitus ulcers with 71 grade 3 decubitus ulcers and 29 grade 4 decubitus ulcers were compared with 100 controls with 27 decubitus ulcers graded 2 or lower and the maximal risk as assessed by the Norton scale. The mean age was 86 years, 80% were females, 86% were bedridden, and cachexia was found in 66%. The individuals with decubitus ulcers were more often severely disabled, had more immobility of joints, and were more often under treatment with antidepressive and/or sedative drugs (e.g., opioid analgesies, neurolepties, benzodiazepines). Patients' impaired ability or unwillingness to comply or cooperate with preventive and therapeutic measures was more often recorded in cases of decubitus than in the control group. There was no evidence that supplementary nutrition or use of preventive pressure relief and protective devices differed between the decubitus cases and the controls.