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Swilley-Martinez ME, Coles SA, Miller VE, Alam IZ, Fitch KV, Cruz TH, Hohl B, Murray R, Ranapurwala SI. "We adjusted for race": now what? A systematic review of utilization and reporting of race in American Journal of Epidemiology and Epidemiology, 2020-2021. Epidemiol Rev 2023; 45:15-31. [PMID: 37789703 DOI: 10.1093/epirev/mxad010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Race is a social construct, commonly used in epidemiologic research to adjust for confounding. However, adjustment of race may mask racial disparities, thereby perpetuating structural racism. We conducted a systematic review of articles published in Epidemiology and American Journal of Epidemiology between 2020 and 2021 to (1) understand how race, ethnicity, and similar social constructs were operationalized, used, and reported; and (2) characterize good and poor practices of utilization and reporting of race data on the basis of the extent to which they reveal or mask systemic racism. Original research articles were considered for full review and data extraction if race data were used in the study analysis. We extracted how race was categorized, used-as a descriptor, confounder, or for effect measure modification (EMM)-and reported if the authors discussed racial disparities and systemic bias-related mechanisms responsible for perpetuating the disparities. Of the 561 articles, 299 had race data available and 192 (34.2%) used race data in analyses. Among the 160 US-based studies, 81 different racial categorizations were used. Race was most often used as a confounder (52%), followed by effect measure modifier (33%), and descriptive variable (12%). Fewer than 1 in 4 articles (22.9%) exhibited good practices (EMM along with discussing disparities and mechanisms), 63.5% of the articles exhibited poor practices (confounding only or not discussing mechanisms), and 13.5% were considered neither poor nor good practices. We discuss implications and provide 13 recommendations for operationalization, utilization, and reporting of race in epidemiologic and public health research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica E Swilley-Martinez
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7435, United States
- Injury Prevention Research Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States
| | - Serita A Coles
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7440, United States
| | - Vanessa E Miller
- Injury Prevention Research Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States
| | - Ishrat Z Alam
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7435, United States
- Injury Prevention Research Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States
| | - Kate Vinita Fitch
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7435, United States
- Injury Prevention Research Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States
| | - Theresa H Cruz
- Prevention Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Health Sciences Center, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, United States
| | - Bernadette Hohl
- Penn Injury Science Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6021, United States
| | - Regan Murray
- Center for Public Health and Technology, Department of Health, Human Performance and Recreation, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, United States
| | - Shabbar I Ranapurwala
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7435, United States
- Injury Prevention Research Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States
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Ye T, Small DS, Rosenbaum PR. Dimensions, power and factors in an observational study of behavioral problems after physical abuse of children. Ann Appl Stat 2022. [DOI: 10.1214/22-aoas1611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ting Ye
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington
| | - Dylan S. Small
- Department of Statistics and Data Science, Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania
| | - Paul R. Rosenbaum
- Department of Statistics and Data Science, Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania
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Zhao A, Lee Y, Small DS, Karmakar B. Evidence factors from multiple, possibly invalid, instrumental variables. Ann Stat 2022. [DOI: 10.1214/21-aos2148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anqi Zhao
- Department of Statistics and Data Science, National University of Singapore
| | - Youjin Lee
- Department of Biostatistics, Brown University
| | - Dylan S. Small
- Department of Statistics and Data Science, University of Pennsylvania
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Munafò MR, Higgins JPT, Smith GD. Triangulating Evidence through the Inclusion of Genetically Informed Designs. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2021; 11:a040659. [PMID: 33355252 PMCID: PMC8327826 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a040659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Much research effort is invested in attempting to determine causal influences on disease onset and progression to inform prevention and treatment efforts. However, this is often dependent on observational data that are prone to well-known limitations, particularly residual confounding and reverse causality. Several statistical methods have been developed to support stronger causal inference. However, a complementary approach is to use design-based methods for causal inference, which acknowledge sources of bias and attempt to mitigate these through the design of the study rather than solely through statistical adjustment. Genetically informed methods provide a novel and potentially powerful extension to this approach, accounting by design for unobserved genetic and environmental confounding. No single approach will be absent from bias. Instead, we should seek and combine evidence from multiple methodologies that each bring different (and ideally uncorrelated) sources of bias. If the results of these different methodologies align-or triangulate-then we can be more confident in our causal inference. To be truly effective, this should ideally be done prospectively, with the sources of evidence specified in advance, to protect against one final source of bias-our own cognitions, expectations, and fondly held beliefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus R Munafò
- School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TU, United Kingdom
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit at the University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2BN, United Kingdom
- NIHR Bristol Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation Trust and University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2BN, United Kingdom
| | - Julian P T Higgins
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit at the University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2BN, United Kingdom
- NIHR Bristol Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation Trust and University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2BN, United Kingdom
- Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UD, United Kingdom
| | - George Davey Smith
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit at the University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2BN, United Kingdom
- NIHR Bristol Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation Trust and University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2BN, United Kingdom
- Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UD, United Kingdom
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Karmakar B, Doubeni CA, Small DS. EVIDENCE FACTORS IN A CASE-CONTROL STUDY WITH APPLICATION TO THE EFFECT OF FLEXIBLE SIGMOIDOSCOPY SCREENING ON COLORECTAL CANCER. Ann Appl Stat 2020; 14:829-849. [PMID: 38465229 PMCID: PMC10924422 DOI: 10.1214/20-aoas1329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
As in any observational study, in a case-control study a primary concern is potential unmeasured confounders. Bias, due to unmeasured confounders, can result in a false discovery of an apparent treatment effect when there is none. Replication of an observational study, which tries to provide multiple analyses of the data where the biases affecting each analysis are thought to be different, is one way to strengthen the evidence from an observational study. Evidence factors allow for internal replication by testing a hypothesis using multiple comparisons in a way that the comparisons yield independent evidence and differ in the sources of potential bias. We construct evidence factors in a case-control study in which there are two types of cases, "narrow" cases which are thought to be potentially more affected by the exposure and "marginal" cases which are thought to have more heterogeneous causes. We develop and study an inference procedure for using such evidence factors and apply it to a study of the effect of sigmoidoscopy screening on colorectal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bikram Karmakar
- Department of Statistics, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Florida
| | - Chyke A Doubeni
- Center for Health Equity and Community Engagement Research, Mayo Clinic
| | - Dylan S Small
- Department of Statistics, The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania
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