Incidence and time course of everolimus-related adverse events in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive advanced breast cancer: insights from BOLERO-2

Cardiovascular complications of ribociclib in breast cancer patients

Cyclin-dependent kinase 4 and 6 (CDK4/6) inhibitors have unprecedentedly advanced hormone-dependent breast cancer treatment paradigm. In the metastatic setting, ribociclib has consistently demonstrated survival benefit in pre-, peri-, and postmenopausal patients, conjugating efficacy with health-related quality of life preservation. Accordingly, the emergence of cardiac and/or vascular adverse events related to this novel targeted agent is gaining significant interest. This narrative review provides an overview of the incidence and spectrum of cardiovascular toxicity, in both clinical trial framework and real-world evidence. The potential pathogenetic mechanism, along with the available diagnostic parameters including biomarkers, and proper management, are also summarized.

Dexamethasone to prevent everolimus-induced stomatitis (Alliance MIST Trial: A221701)

mTOR inhibitors such as everolimus may cause oral stomatitis, often a dose-limiting toxicity. Prior clinical research has suggested that a dexamethasone mouth rinse might help prevent and/or treat this. Alliance A221701 was a randomized phase III trial of patients initiating 10 mg daily oral everolimus that compared dexamethasone mouthwash taken preventively (initial dexamethasone group) versus therapeutically (initial placebo group) to assess two coprimary endpoints: the incidence of mTOR inhibitor-associated stomatitis (mIAS), and the area under the curve (AUC) of mIAS-associated pain over an 8-week treatment period. A Fisher's exact test was used to compare the incidences while a Wilcoxon rank-sum test was used to compare the AUCs. In addition, we performed an exploratory analysis of the association of everolimus trough concentrations and toxicity using a Mann-Whitney U test. Due to slow accrual, this study closed after 39 patients were randomized (19 to upfront placebo and 20 to upfront dexamethasone). There were no significant differences between groups seen in either of the coprimary endpoints; furthermore, we found no association between whole blood everolimus trough concentrations and toxicity. Although limited by poor enrollment, the results of this study do not suggest that prophylactic dexamethasone mouthwash is superior to therapeutic dexamethasone mouthwash (initiated at the first sign of mouth pain) for reducing the incidence or severity of mIAS from everolimus.

Safety of Sirolimus in Patients with Tuberous Sclerosis Complex under Two Years of Age-A Bicenter Retrospective Study

BACKGROUND

mTOR inhibitors are a novel pharmacotherapy recommended for subependymal giant astrocytomas, refractory epilepsy, and the treatment of the other clinical manifestations of tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC). Clinical trials on everolimus proved it to be effective and safe in children. Despite its common use in clinical practice, the research on sirolimus is limited. This study is the first to determine and assess the severity of the adverse effects (AEs) of sirolimus administered to children with TSC under two years of age.

METHODS

We performed a bicenter retrospective data analysis of medical records of individuals with TSC who initiated therapy with sirolimus under the age of two.

RESULTS

Twenty-one patients were included in the study. At least one AE was reported in all participants. The most prevalent AEs were anemia, thrombocytosis, and hyperlipidemia. Infections and mouth ulcerations, often reported in the studies on older patients, were infrequent and of mild or moderate grade.

CONCLUSIONS

Adverse effects associated with sirolimus use in infants and young children with TSC are frequent yet not life- or health-threatening. Further multicenter prospective clinical trials should determine the long-term safety of sirolimus.

A multicentre, randomised, double-blind, phase II study to evaluate the tolerability of an induction dose escalation of everolimus in patients with metastatic breast cancer (DESIREE)

BACKGROUND

Stomatitis is one of the main reasons to discontinue everolimus in patients with hormone receptor-positive (HR+)/human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative (HER2-) metastatic breast cancer (mBC). To decrease stomatitis and subsequently early treatment discontinuations or dose reductions, the DESIREE trial investigated the use of a stepwise dose-escalation schedule of everolimus (EVE esc).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

DESIREE is a phase II, multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in patients with HR+/HER2- mBC and progression/relapse after nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor treatment. Patients were randomised to EVE esc (2.5 mg/day, week 1; 5 mg/day, week 2; 7.5 mg/day, week 3; 10 mg/day, weeks 4-24) or everolimus 10 mg/day (EVE 10mg) for 24 weeks plus exemestane. The primary endpoint was the incidence of stomatitis episodes grade ≥2 within 12 weeks of treatment. The secondary endpoints included toxicity, relative total dose intensity (RTDI) and quality of life (QoL).

RESULTS

A total of 160 patients were randomised and 156 started treatment (EVE esc: 80; EVE 10mg: 76). The median age of patients was 64 years (range 33-85), 56.3% patients in the EVE esc arm versus 42.1% in the EVE 10mg arm had liver metastasis (P = 0.081) and 62.5% versus 51.3% received over one metastatic therapy line (P = 0.196). Within 12 weeks, the incidence of stomatitis episodes grade ≥2 was significantly lower in the EVE esc arm compared with the EVE 10mg arm (28.8% versus 46.1%; odds ratio 0.47, 95% confidence interval 0.24-0.92; P = 0.026). Toxicity was in line with the known safety profile without new safety concerns. The median RTDI was 91.1% in the EVE esc arm versus 80.0% in the EVE 10mg arm (P = 0.329). Discontinuation rate in the first 3 weeks was 6.3% versus 15.8%, respectively (P = 0.073). QoL was comparable between the two treatment arms.

CONCLUSIONS

A dose-escalation schema of everolimus over 3 weeks can be successfully used to reduce the incidence of high-grade stomatitis in the first 12 weeks of treatment in patients with HR+/HER2- mBC.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.govNCT02387099; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02387099.

Oral Oncolytics: Using Remote Technology to Improve Access, Operational Efficiency, and Satisfaction

Oncology care management via oral oncolytic therapy requires frequent laboratory monitoring for potential toxicities. A lag in these processes can result in treatment delays and care team dissatisfaction. A nurse-led quality improvement project was implemented to streamline processes, clearly define job tasks, and introduce a remote patient-reported symptom monitoring application to improve patient safety, access, operational productivity, and care team satisfaction. Project results included eliminating paper fax distribution, a 97% decrease in time required to process faxed remote laboratory results, and a 78% reduction in mouse clicks to complete laboratory orders and patient correspondence.

Expert consensus on the clinical application of PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibitors in the treatment of advanced breast cancer

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (PKB or AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway (PAM pathway) plays an important role in the development of breast cancer and are closely associated with the resistance to endocrine therapy in advanced breast cancer. Therefore, anticancer treatment targeting key molecules in this signaling pathway has become a research hotspot in recent years. Randomized clinical trials have demonstrated that PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibitors bring significant clinical benefit to patients with advanced breast cancer, especially to those with hormone receptor (HR)-positive, human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER) 2-negative advanced breast cancer. Alpelisib, a PI3K inhibitor, and everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, have been approved by FDA. Based on their high efficacy and relatively good safety profile, an expanded indication of everolimus in breast cancer has been approved by National Medical Products Administration (NMPA). Alpelisib is expected to be approved in China in the near future. The members of the consensus expert panel reached this consensus to comprehensively define the role of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in breast cancer, efficacy and clinical applications of PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibitors, management of adverse reactions, and PIK3CA mutation detection, to promote the understanding of PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibitors for Chinese oncologists, improve clinical decision-making, and prolong the survival of target patient population.

Cardiac Toxicity From Adjuvant Targeting Treatment for Breast Cancer Post-Surgery

Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent types of cancers worldwide, especially for females. Surgery is the preferred treatment for breast cancer, and various postoperative adjuvant therapies can be reasonably used according to different pathological characteristics, especially traditional radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and endocrine therapy. In recent years, targeting agent therapy has also become one of the selective breast cancer treatment strategies, including anti-HER-2 drugs, CDK4/6 inhibitor, poly ADP-ribose polymerase inhibitor, PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway inhibitor, ER targeting drugs, and aromatase inhibitor. Because of the different pathologic mechanisms of these adjuvant therapies, each of the strategies may cause cardiotoxicity in clinic. The cardiac adverse events of traditional endocrine therapy, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy for breast cancer have been widely detected in clinic; however, the targeting therapy agents have been paid more attention with the extension of application. This review will summarize the cardiac toxicity of various adjuvant therapies for breast cancer, especially for targeting drug therapy.

Efficacy and safety of low-dose everolimus combined with endocrine drugs for patients with hormone receptor-positive, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative metastatic breast cancer

Background

To analyze the efficacy and safety of everolimus 5 mg/day in combination with endocrine drugs in the treatment of hormone receptor-positive, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-negative metastatic breast cancer using real-world clinical data.

Methods

Clinical data of hormone receptor (HR)-positive and HER2-negative patients with advanced breast cancer treated with everolimus combined with endocrine drugs in our center between August 2012 and May 2017 were retrospectively analyzed. Curative effect and adverse reactions were evaluated.

Results

A total of 110 patients were enrolled in this study, and 87.3% received salvage chemotherapy. The median number of salvage treatment lines was 5 (range: 1–19). The median follow-up duration was 12 months (range: 1–56.3 months), the overall response rate (ORR) was 6.4%, the clinical benefit rate (CBR) was 31.8%, the median progression-free survival (mPFS) was 4.0 months (95% CI: 2.9–5.1 months), and the median overall survival (OS) was 17 months (95% CI: 12.1–21.9 months). The mPFS for patients who received ≤2 treatment line was 11.8 months (95% CI: 4.3–19.3 months). Univariate and multivariate analyses suggested that absence of liver metastases, secondary endocrine resistance, and number of metastasis sites <3 were the main factors influencing the benefit of everolimus combined with endocrine therapy. The most common adverse events of grade 3 were: stomatitis (5.5%), non-infectious pneumonia (1.8%), and erythra (1.8%). No grade 4 adverse reactions were observed.

Conclusions

Our results showed that everolimus (5 mg/day) combined with endocrine therapy was effective and relatively safe for patients with hormone receptor-positive, HER2-negative metastatic breast cancer.

Cardiovascular toxicity of breast cancer treatment: an update

Novel chemotherapeutic agents have marked a new era in oncology during the past decade, prolonging significantly the overall survival of breast cancer patients. Nevertheless, contemporary antineoplastic treatments can frequently cause adverse cardiovascular side effects. Common manifestations of chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity include cardiomyopathy, ischemia, conduction disturbances, hypertension and thromboembolic events, while the type of the treatment regimen administered crucially determines clinical outcome. The aim of this literature review is to analyze the incidence and the underlying mechanisms of cardiovascular toxicity caused by agents approved for breast cancer, as well as to describe ways of monitoring and treating the cardiotoxic effects in breast cancer patients. Moreover, our work intends to provide an easy-to-grasp synopsis of recent and clinically meaningful advances in the field.

Safety and efficacy of everolimus (EVE) plus exemestane (EXE) in postmenopausal women with locally advanced or metastatic breast cancer: final results from EVEREXES

BACKGROUND

This study was conducted to collect clinical safety, tolerability, and efficacy data with the use of everolimus (EVE) combined with exemestane (EXE) in patients with advanced breast cancer (ABC).

METHODS

The EVEREXES trial initiated in 2012, provided early access to the first dual blockade treatment with EVE + EXE in patients with HR+, HER2 - ABC in Asia and other emerging growth countries. Postmenopausal women with HR+, HER2 - ABC who had documented recurrence or progression, following a nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor therapy, were treated with EVE (10 mg/day) + EXE (25 mg/day) orally.

RESULTS

A total of 235 patients received ≥ 1 dose of study medication. At the end of the study, all patients ceased the treatment. Disease progression (66.0%) was the primary reason of discontinuation. The most common AEs (≥ 20%) were stomatitis, decreased appetite, hyperglycemia, rash, aspartate aminotransferase increased, anemia, alanine aminotransferase increased, cough, and fatigue. No new safety concerns were identified in the current study. Median progression-free survival (PFS) in the Asian subset was similar to that of the overall population (9.3 months in both groups). Confirmed overall response rate (ORR) was achieved for 19.6% of the patients. Efficacy of EVE + EXE across subgroups (prior CT, line of treatment, and presence of visceral metastases) was maintained.

CONCLUSION

The safety and efficacy results from EVEREXES trial are consistent to data previously reported in BOLERO-2. These results support that EVE + EXE could be a viable treatment option for the postmenopausal women with HR+, HER2 - ABC in Asian region.

Everolimus-Related Pneumonitis in Patients with Metastatic Breast Cancer: Incidence, Radiographic Patterns, and Relevance to Clinical Outcome

BACKGROUND

This study investigated the incidence, radiographic patterns, and relevance to clinical outcome of everolimus-related pneumonitis (ERP) in patients with metastatic breast cancer (MBC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data of patients with MBC treated with everolimus who had baseline and at least one follow-up chest computed tomography (CT) were obtained from a medical electronic database system. An independent review of the CT scans of these patients was conducted by two radiologists (NCT03730428). Log-rank and Cox proportional hazard regression analyses were used for time-to-event analyses.

RESULTS

ERP was radiographically detected in 45 of 86 patients (52.3%). In more than 80% of these patients, ERP occurred during the first 4 months of everolimus treatment. Only 14 of the 45 patients with ERP were symptomatic (31.1%). Symptoms included cough, fever, and shortness of breath. Bilateral and lower distribution of the pneumonitis was most common. In most of the cases, ground-glass opacities and reticular opacities were noticed. Elderly patients were more likely to develop ERP. Patients with ERP had significantly longer progression-free survival (PFS; 6.8 vs. 4.1 months, p = .024) and overall survival (OS; 42.8 vs. 21.3 months, p = .016). ERP was a predictor of OS improvement confirmed by multivariate Cox analysis (hazard ratio, 0.49; 95% confidence interval, 0.25-0.97; p = .040).

CONCLUSIONS

ERP was noted in half of the patients with MBC treated with everolimus. Our data suggested that ERP was associated with improved prognosis and may be used as a biomarker for the efficacy of everolimus in MBC. Close monitoring, prompt diagnosis, and proper treatment for ERP are essential to maintain the quality of life of patients and achieve maximum treatment benefits.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Everolimus-related pneumonitis (ERP) is one of the most worrying drug adverse events, especially in Asian patients. However, little has been known about the clinical and radiographic details of ERP in patients with metastatic breast cancers (MBCs) treated with everolimus. The present study investigated the clinical characteristics, radiographic patterns, and its correlation with treatment outcome in patients with MBC. ERP was identified in more than half of patients with MBC during everolimus therapy and was associated with improved outcome. Close monitoring and prompt diagnosis and appropriate treatment for ERP are critical for the preservation of patients' quality of life and achievement of maximal treatment benefits.

PI3K pathway protein analyses in metastatic breast cancer patients receiving standard everolimus and exemestane

Purpose

Everolimus plus exemestane (EVE/EXE) is a registered treatment option for ER-positive, HER2-negative (ER +/HER2-) metastatic breast cancer (MBC), but resistance mechanisms limit efficacy. We aimed to find markers that might help select patients with a higher chance on benefit from EVE/EXE.

Methods

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) of PTEN, p-AKT(Thr308), p-AKT(Ser473), p-4EBP1, p-p70S6K, p-S6RP(Ser240/244), p-ERK1/2 and p-S6RP (Ser235/236) was performed on primary tumour tissue and on biopsies immediately taken from ER +/HER2- MBC patients before the start of standard EVE/EXE (Eudract 2013-004120-11). Unsupervised hierarchical clustering was executed to create heatmaps to distinguish subgroups of preferentially activated and less-activated PI3K/MAPK proteins. Uni- and multivariate Cox models were used for associations with PFS.

Results

Primary tumour tissue from 145 patients was retrieved. Median PFS was 5.4 months. Patients without (neo)adjuvant therapy (p = 0.03) or bone only disease (p = 0.04) had longer PFS on EVE/EXE. In primary tumours, neither single proteins nor PI3K/MAPK-associated heatmap subgroups were significantly associated with PFS. In 21 patients a non-osseous biopsy obtained before dosing was useful for continuous scoring, which demonstrated upregulation of several proteins as compared to readings in corresponding primary tumour tissues. These comparisons revealed that increased expression of p-4EBP1 was significantly associated with worse PFS (multivariate HR 3.69, p = 0.05).

Conclusions

IHC of single proteins or heatmap subgroups of the differentially activated PI3K/MAPK pathways was not able to discriminate patients on EVE/EXE with poor or better PFS. Upregulation of p-4EBP1 in pre-treatment biopsies as compared to levels in primary tumours pointed towards shorter PFS.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s00432-020-03291-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Safety and efficacy of sirolimus combined with endocrine therapy in patients with advanced hormone receptor-positive breast cancer and the exploration of biomarkers

Background

We performed a retrospective study on the efficacy and safety of sirolimus (an mTOR inhibitor) in hormone receptor (HR)-positive advanced breast cancer and searched for biomarkers to predict its efficacy.

Methods

All patients with HR-positive metastatic breast cancer treated with sirolimus plus endocrine therapy between December 2017 and July 2018 at the Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences were consecutively and retrospectively reviewed. Mutations in circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA) were assayed for 1021 tumour-related genes via gene panel target capture-based next-generation sequencing.

Results

Thirty-six patients with metastatic breast cancer treated with sirolimus plus endocrine therapy were included. The progression-free survival (PFS) rates between the sirolimus group and everolimus group were similar, and the median PFS was 4.9 months and 5.5 months, respectively (hazard ratio 1.56, 95% CI 0.86–2.81, P = 0.142). The objective response rate in the 36 patients was 19.4%, and the clinical benefit rate was 41.7%. Lipid metabolism disorder was the most common adverse event (69.4%), and 13.9% of patients had stomatitis. Most (94.4%) adverse events were grade 1–2. Twenty patients (55.6%) underwent ctDNA analysis before receiving sirolimus therapy. For patients who received less than 3 lines of chemotherapy, those with PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway alterations had a better response to sirolimus than those without alterations, with a median PFS of 7.0 months vs 4.3 months (hazard ratio = 0.01, 95% CI 0.00–0.34, P = 0.010).

Conclusions

Sirolimus is a potentially effective treatment option for patients with HR-positive advanced breast cancer.

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Sirolimus is a potentially effective treatment option for patients with hormone receptor-positive advanced breast cancer.

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A previous chemotherapy line was a poor predictor of sirolimus efficacy.

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PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway alterations may affect the efficacy of sirolimus.

Everolimus versus alpelisib in advanced hormone receptor-positive HER2-negative breast cancer: targeting different nodes of the PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 pathway with different clinical implications

Background

The PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 axis is implicated in hormone receptor-positive HER2-negative metastatic breast cancer (HR+ HER2− mBC) resistance to anti-estrogen treatments. Based on results of the BOLERO-2 trial, the mTORC1 inhibitor everolimus in combination with the steroidal aromatase inhibitor (AI) exemestane has become a standard treatment for patients with HR+ HER2− mBC resistant to prior non-steroidal AI therapy. In the recent SOLAR-1 trial, the inhibitor of the PI3K alpha subunit (p110α) alpelisib in combination with fulvestrant prolonged progression-free survival (PFS) when compared to fulvestrant alone in patients with PIK3CA-mutated HR+ HER2− mBC that progressed after/on previous AI treatment. Therefore, two different molecules targeting the PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 axis, namely everolimus and alpelisib, are available for patients progressing on/after previous AI treatment, but it is unclear how to optimize their use in the clinical practice.

Main body of the abstract

Here, we reviewed the available clinical evidence deriving from the BOLERO-2 and SOLAR-1 trials to compare efficacy and safety profiles of everolimus and alpelisib in advanced HR+ HER2− BC treatment. Adding either compound to standard endocrine therapy provided similar absolute and relative PFS advantage. In the SOLAR-1 trial, a 76% incidence of grade (G) 3 or 4 (G3/G4) adverse events was reported, while G3/G4 toxicities occurred in 42% of patients in the BOLERO-2 trial. While alpelisib was only effective in patients with PIK3CA-mutated neoplasms, retrospective analyses indicate that everolimus improves exemestane efficacy independently of PIK3CA mutational status.

Conclusions

Based on the available efficacy and safety data, the “new” alpelisib may be burdened by higher incidence of severe adverse events, higher costs, and anticancer efficacy that is limited to PIK3CA-mutated tumors when compared to the “old” everolimus. Therefore, the everolimus-exemestane combination remains an effective and reasonably well-tolerated therapeutic option for HR+ HER2− mBC patients progressing after/on previous AI treatment, independently of PIK3CA mutational status.

Everolimus plus exemestane in hormone-receptor-positive, HER2-negative locally advanced or metastatic breast cancer: incidence and time course of adverse events in the phase IIIb BALLET population

BACKGROUND

The addition of everolimus to exemestane therapy significantly improves progression-free survival in postmenopausal patients with hormone-receptor (HR)-positive HER2-negative endocrine-resistant breast cancer. However, the safety profile of this schedule still might be optimized.

METHODS

Patients included in the BALLET trial were assessed. The objectives of this analysis were to provide additional information on the safety profile of this schedule depending on prior anticancer therapies and to characterize the time course of adverse events (AEs) and serious AEs (SAEs) of clinical interest throughout the study period. Non-infectious pneumonitis (NIP), stomatitis, asthenia and weight loss were selected as AEs of clinical interest.

RESULTS

The safety population of this analysis comprised 2131 patients. There were similar incidences of AEs and SAEs of clinical interest regardless of previous anticancer therapies. Most stomatitis and asthenia events occurred within the first three months. Incidence of weight loss appeared to plateau except in the case of grade 3-4 events, which occurred rarely. The incidence of any grade NIP (between 2 to 6%) and grade 3-4 NIP (between 0 to 1%) was low across the study, but steady.

CONCLUSIONS

Everolimus plus exemestane is a well-known therapeutic option for aromatase inhibitor pretreated advanced breast cancer patients, and its toxicity profile is similar to that described in previous studies. Close monitoring, especially within the first three months, early intervention with preventive measures and patient education to help recognize the first signs and symptoms of AEs, will help to reduce their incidence and severity.

High ctDNA molecule numbers relate with poor outcome in advanced ER+, HER2- postmenopausal breast cancer patients treated with everolimus and exemestane

We determined whether progression‐free survival (PFS) in metastatic breast cancer (MBC) patients receiving everolimus plus exemestane (EVE/EXE) varies depending on circulating tumour DNA (ctDNA) characteristics. Baseline plasma cell‐free DNA (cfDNA) from 164 postmenopausal women with ER‐positive, HER2‐negative MBC refractory to a nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor and treated with standard EVE/EXE (Everolimus Biomarker Study, Eudract 2013‐004120‐11) was characterised for 10 relevant breast cancer genes by next‐generation sequencing with molecular barcoding. ctDNA molecule numbers, number of mutations and specific variants were related with PFS and overall survival (OS). Missense hotspot mutations in cfDNA were detected in 125 patients. The median of 54 ctDNA molecules per mL plasma distinguished patients with high and low/no ctDNA load. Patients with low/no ctDNA load (N = 102) showed longer median PFS of 5.7 months (P = 0.006) and OS of 124.8 months (P = 0.008) than patients with high ctDNA load (N = 62; 4.4 months and 107.7 months, respectively) in multivariate analyses. Patients with < 3 specific mutations (N = 135) had longer median PFS of 5.4 months compared to those with ≥ 3 mutations (3.4 months; P < 0.001). In conclusion, MBC patients with low/no ctDNA load or < 3 hotspot mutations experience longer PFS while treated with EVE/EXE.

Quantitative assessment of adverse events in clinical trials: Comparison of methods at an interim and the final analysis

In clinical study reports (CSRs), adverse events (AEs) are commonly summarized using the incidence proportion (IP). IPs can be calculated for all types of AEs and are often interpreted as the probability that a treated patient experiences specific AEs. Exposure time can be taken into account with time-to-event methods. Using one minus Kaplan-Meier (1-KM) is known to overestimate the AE probability in the presence of competing events (CEs). The use of a nonparametric estimator of the cumulative incidence function (CIF) has therefore been advocated as more appropriate. In this paper, we compare different methods to estimate the probability of one selected AE. In particular, we investigate whether the proposed methods provide a reasonable estimate of the AE probability at an interim analysis (IA). The characteristics of the methods in the presence of a CE are illustrated using data from a breast cancer study and we quantify the potential bias in a simulation study. At the final analysis performed for the CSR, 1-KM systematically overestimates and in most cases IP slightly underestimates the given AE probability. CIF has the lowest bias in most simulation scenarios. All methods might lead to biased estimates at the IA except for AEs with early onset. The magnitude of the bias varies with the time-to-AE and/or CE occurrence, the selection of event-specific hazards and the amount of censoring. In general, reporting AE probabilities for prespecified fixed time points is recommended.

Stomatitis And Everolimus: A Review Of Current Literature On 8,201 Patients

Background

Oral toxicities, such as mucositis and stomatitis, are some of the most significant and unavoidable side effects associated with anticancer therapies. In past decades, research has focused on newer targeted agents with the aim of decreasing the rates of side effects on healthy cells. Unfortunately, even targeted anticancer therapies show significant rates of toxicity on healthy tissue. mTOR inhibitors display some adverse events, such as hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, hypophosphatemia, hematologic toxicities, and mucocutaneous eruption, but the most important are still stomatitis and skin rash, which are often dose-limiting side effects.

Aim

This review was performed to answer the question “What is the incidence of stomatitis in patients treated with everolimus?”

Methods

We conducted a systematic search on the PubMed and Medline online databases using a combination of MESH terms and free text: “everolimus” (MESH) AND “side effects” OR “toxicities” OR “adverse events”. Only studies fulfilling the following inclusion criteria were considered eligible for inclusion in this study: performed on human subjects, reporting on the use of everolimus (even if in combination with other drugs or ionizing radiation), written in the English language, and reporting the incidence of side effects.

Results

The analysis of literature revealed that the overall incidence of stomatitis after treatment with everolimus was 42.6% (3,493) and that of stomatitis grade G1/2 84.02% (2,935), while G3/4 was 15.97% (558).

Conclusion

Results of the analysis showed that the incidence of stomatitis of grade 1 or 2 is higher than grade 3 or 4. However, it must be taken into account that it is not possible to say if side effects are entirely due to everolimus therapy or combinations with other drugs.

Everolimus Plus Exemestane vs Everolimus or Capecitabine Monotherapy for Estrogen Receptor-Positive, HER2-Negative Advanced Breast Cancer: The BOLERO-6 Randomized Clinical Trial

Importance

Everolimus plus exemestane and capecitabine are approved second-line therapies for advanced breast cancer.

Objective

A postapproval commitment to health authorities to estimate the clinical benefit of everolimus plus exemestane vs everolimus or capecitabine monotherapy for estrogen receptor-positive, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative advanced breast cancer.

Design

Open-label, randomized, phase 2 trial of treatment effects in postmenopausal women with advanced breast cancer that had progressed during treatment with nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitors.

Interventions

Patients were randomized to 3 treatment regimens: (1) everolimus (10 mg/d) plus exemestane (25 mg/d); (2) everolimus alone (10 mg/d); and (3) capecitabine alone (1250 mg/m2 twice daily).

Main Outcomes and Measures

Estimated hazard ratios (HRs) of progression-free survival (PFS) for everolimus plus exemestane vs everolimus alone (primary objective) or capecitabine alone (key secondary objective). Safety was a secondary objective. No formal statistical comparisons were planned.

Results

A total of 309 postmenopausal women were enrolled, median age, 61 years (range, 32-88 years). Of these, 104 received everolimus plus exemestane; 103, everolimus alone; and 102, capecitabine alone. Median follow-up from randomization to the analysis cutoff (June 1, 2017) was 37.6 months. Estimated HR of PFS was 0.74 (90% CI, 0.57-0.97) for the primary objective of everolimus plus exemestane vs everolimus alone and 1.26 (90% CI, 0.96-1.66) for everolimus plus exemestane vs capecitabine alone. Between treatment arms, potential informative censoring was noted, and a stratified multivariate Cox regression model was used to account for imbalances in baseline characteristics; a consistent HR was observed for everolimus plus exemestane vs everolimus (0.73; 90% CI, 0.56-0.97), but the HR was closer to 1 for everolimus plus exemestane vs capecitabine (1.15; 90% CI, 0.86-1.52). Grade 3 to 4 adverse events were more frequent with capecitabine (74%; n = 75) vs everolimus plus exemestane (70%; n = 73) or everolimus alone (59%; n = 61). Serious adverse events were more frequent with everolimus plus exemestane (36%; n = 37) vs everolimus alone (29%; n = 30) or capecitabine (29%; n = 30).

Conclusions and Relevance

These findings suggest that everolimus plus exemestane combination therapy offers a PFS benefit vs everolimus alone, and they support continued use of this therapy in this setting. A numerical PFS difference with capecitabine vs everolimus plus exemestane should be interpreted cautiously owing to imbalances among baseline characteristics and potential informative censoring.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01783444.

Evaluation of Miracle Mouthwash plus Hydrocortisone Versus Prednisolone Mouth Rinses as Prophylaxis for Everolimus-Associated Stomatitis: A Randomized Phase II Study

BACKGROUND

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor-associated stomatitis (mIAS) is a frequent adverse event (AE) associated with mTOR inhibitor therapy and can impact treatment adherence. The objectives are to evaluate two steroid-based mouthrinses for preventing/ameliorating mIAS in patients with metastatic breast cancer (MBC) treated with everolimus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This prospective, randomized phase II study enrolled 100 postmenopausal patients with hormone receptor-positive MBC within the US Oncology Network who were initiating therapy with an aromatase inhibitor + everolimus (AIE; 10 mg/day). Patients were randomized to prophylactic therapy with one of two oral rinses (Arm 1: Miracle Mouthwash [MMW] 480 mL recipe: 320 mL oral Benadryl [diphenhydramine; Johnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, NJ, USA], 2 g tetracycline, 80 mg hydrocortisone, 40 mL nystatin suspension, water; or Arm 2: prednisolone [P] 15 mg/5 mL oral solution, 1.8% alcohol). Patients were instructed to swish/expectorate 10 mL of the assigned rinse for 1-2 minutes four times daily starting with day 1 of AIE treatment, for the first 12 weeks.

RESULTS

A total of 100 patients received treatment (49 MMW; 51 P). The incidence of stomatitis/oral AEs during the first 12 weeks was 35% (n = 17/49) and 37% (19/51) in the MMW and P arms, respectively. The incidence of grade 2 oral AEs was 14% (7/49) and 12% (6/51) with MMW or P, respectively. There were two grade 3 oral AEs (MMW arm) and no grade 4 events. There was one everolimus dose reduction (MMW) and six dose delays (four MMW, two P) and one dose reduction + delay (MMW) during the first 12 weeks of treatment. No patients stopped steroid mouthwash therapy because of rinse-related toxicity.

CONCLUSION

Prophylactic use of steroid-containing oral rinses can prevent/ameliorate mIAS in patients with MBC treated with AIE. MMW + hydrocortisone is an affordable option, as is dexamethasone oral rinse.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

This prospective phase-II study showed that two steroid-containing mouthrinses substantially reduced incidences of all-grade and grade ≥2 stomatitis and related oral adverse events (AEs), and the number of everolimus dose-delays and/or dose-reduction in metastatic breast cancer (MBC) patients receiving everolimus treatment plus an aromatase inhibitor. Both oral rinses were well tolerated and demonstrated similar efficacy. Prophylactic use of steroid mouth rinse provides a cost-effective option that substantially decreases the incidence and severity of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor-associated stomatitis and related oral AEs as well as the need for dose modification in MBC patients undergoing treatment with an mTOR inhibitor.

Pharmacokinetic Optimization of Everolimus Dosing in Oncology: A Randomized Crossover Trial

BACKGROUND

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor everolimus is used in the treatment of breast cancer, neuroendocrine tumors, and renal cancer. The approved 10 mg once-daily dose is associated with considerable adverse effects and it has been suggested that these are associated with the maximum concentration (C _max) of everolimus. Twice-daily dosing might be an alternative strategy with improved tolerability; however, a direct pharmacokinetic comparison of 10 mg once-daily with 5 mg twice-daily dosing is lacking.

METHODS

We performed a prospective, randomized, pharmacokinetic, crossover trial comparing everolimus 10 mg once daily with 5 mg twice daily. Patients received the first dose schedule for 2 weeks and then switched to the alternative regimen for 2 weeks. Pharmacokinetic sampling was performed on days 14 and 28.

RESULTS

Eleven patients were included in the study, of whom 10 were evaluable for pharmacokinetic analysis. On the 10 mg once-daily schedule, C _max, minimum concentration (C _min), and area under the concentration-time curve from time zero to 24 h (AUC₂₄) were 61.5 ng/mL [mean percentage coefficient of variation (CV%) 29.6], 9.6 ng/mL (CV% 35.0), and 435 ng h/mL (CV% 28.1), respectively. Switching to the 5 mg twice-daily schedule resulted in a reduction of C _max to 40.3 ng/mL (CV% 46.6) (p = 0.013), while maintaining AUC₂₄ at 436 ng h/mL (CV% 34.8) (p = 0.952). C _min increased to 13.7 ng/mL (CV% 53.9) (p = 0.018). The overall reduction in C _max was 21.2 ng/mL, or 32.7%. The C _max/C _min ratio was reduced from 6.44 (CV% 36.2) to 3.18 (CV% 35.5) (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated that switching from a once-daily to a twice-daily everolimus dose schedule reduces C _max without negatively impacting C _min or AUC₂₄. These results merit further investigation of the twice-daily schedule in an effort to reduce everolimus toxicity while maintaining treatment efficacy.

REGISTRATION

This trial was registered in the EurdaCT database (2014-004833-25) and the Netherlands Trial Registry (NTR4908).

A single-arm, phase 2 study of steroid-containing mouthwash for the prevention of everolimus-associated stomatitis in multiple tumor types

BACKGROUND

Everolimus is a mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor used in the treatment of multiple tumor types, and its most common toxicity, stomatitis, can affect patient quality of life. Recent studies in breast cancer have supported the efficacy of steroid mouthwash for the prevention of everolimus-associated stomatitis. However, a few studies have been reported to date, and none have examined this effect in other tumor types.

METHODS

This single-arm phase 2 study was designed to evaluate the efficacy of steroid-containing mouthwash for the prevention of stomatitis in patients with multiple tumor types receiving everolimus. The primary outcome was incidence of grade ≥ 2 stomatitis at 8 weeks of everolimus with steroid-containing mouthwash prophylaxis. We also assessed the stability of steroid-containing mouthwash components.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine patients were evaluated, of which 76% had breast cancer and 24% had neuroendocrine tumors originating in the lung, gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, or of unknown primary origin. Grade ≥ 2 stomatitis incidence at 8 weeks was 28.1% (90% CI 16.2-46.1); the higher confidence limit exceeded the prespecified threshold of 30%. No patients developed grade ≥ 3 stomatitis. Most stomatitis occurred behind the oral cavity, with no lesions observed on the lips or floor of the mouth.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings did not support a prophylactic effect of steroid-containing mouthwash on everolimus-associated stomatitis. Given the needs of prevention of everolimus-associated stomatitis in various tumor types, further studies in a larger population using a randomized controlled trial design are, therefore, required to confirm the efficacy of steroid-containing mouthwash.

Management of toxicities associated with targeted therapies for HR-positive metastatic breast cancer: a multidisciplinary approach is the key to success

Purpose

Agents targeting HR-positive, HER2-negative locally advanced or metastatic breast cancer have improved patient outcomes compared with conventional single-agent endocrine therapy. Currently, approved targeted agents include everolimus and three CDK4/6 inhibitors, palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib. Unlike the well-characterized and easily manageable safety profile of endocrine therapies, adverse events associated with targeted therapies are complex and potentially severe. Their prompt recognition and treatment, crucial for prolonged endocrine sensitivity and survival, may be challenging and requires a multidisciplinary effort and a good knowledge of drug interactions.

Methods

We reviewed the current evidence on the drug safety of targeted agents for metastatic breast cancer currently used in clinical practice in Italy, supported by the clinical experience of Italian oncologists with expertise in the field.

Results

All oncologists had used CDK4/6 inhibitors in clinical practice and/or within a clinical trial. The clinical management of toxicities, including dose adjustments, treatment interruptions, and concerns regarding special populations is discussed, and the management of relevant adverse events, related to individual agents and class-specific, toxicities is reviewed. Hematologic toxicities have the greatest impact on clinical management of the disease and on patients. Although toxicities associated with the new treatments result in more visits to the physician and more time and attention with patients, they are manageable, with no need for the oncologist to consult with specialist physicians.

Conclusions

Based on the available evidence and current guidelines, we propose a series of practical recommendations for multidisciplinary clinical management of the various toxicities associated with the addition of targeted agents to endocrine therapy.

Long-term Pooled Safety Analysis of Palbociclib in Combination With Endocrine Therapy for HR+/HER2- Advanced Breast Cancer

BACKGROUND

Palbociclib administered with endocrine therapy was tolerable when the overall incidence of toxicities was assessed separately for three PALOMA studies. This study analyzed pooled, longer-term PALOMA safety data longitudinally.

METHODS

Data were pooled from three randomized phase II and III studies (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00721409, NCT01740427, NCT01942135) of hormone receptor-positive/human epidermal growth factor receptor 2‒negative advanced breast cancer patients. Front-line patients were randomly assigned to receive letrozole with/without palbociclib (PALOMA-1) or letrozole plus palbociclib/placebo (PALOMA-2). In PALOMA-3, patients with prior endocrine resistance received fulvestrant plus palbociclib/placebo. The cumulative event rates of adverse events (AEs), reporting up to 50 months of treatment, were assessed over time.

RESULTS

Patients who received endocrine therapy (n = 1343) were included in this pooled analysis (872 were also treated with palbociclib, and 471 were not). The most common AEs with palbociclib plus endocrine therapy were neutropenia and infections (any grade, 80.6% and 54.7%, respectively), which were higher than in the endocrine monotherapy arm (any grade, 5.3% and 36.9%). The most common hematologic AEs (≥15.0% in the palbociclib arm) were more likely to be reported in the initial months of the study, after which time the cumulative event rate did not substantially increase. With palbociclib plus endocrine therapy, any grade AEs leading to permanent discontinuation over three years occurred in only 8.3% of patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on these long-term safety analyses, there is no evidence of specific cumulative or delayed toxicities with palbociclib plus endocrine therapy, supporting the ongoing investigation of palbociclib plus endocrine therapy in early breast cancer (NCT02513394).

Treatment after Progression on Fulvestrant among Metastatic Breast Cancer Patients in Clinical Practice: a Multicenter, Retrospective Study

Fulvestrant (Ful) is an effective and widely used agent for first- and second-line treatment of hormone receptor-positive, human epidermal growth factor receptor-2-negative (HR+/HER2-) metastatic breast cancer (MBC). However, there is no evidence of treatment after progression on Ful. Our study aimed to investigate the profile of daily practice regarding therapy after Ful. A consecutive series of 131 HR+, HER2- MBC patients who failed Ful 500 mg as first-line or second-line therapy from June 2014 to June 2017 in 6 institutions were included and analysed. Among 131 patients who failed Ful with similar baseline characteristics, 31 (23.7%) received endocrine therapy (ET), and 100 (76.3%) were treated with chemotherapy (CT). The most frequently applied CT regimen was capecitabine (32%), and the ET regimen was exemestane + everolimus (35.5%). Multivariate analysis showed that patients with bone-only metastasis were associated with lower CT use (OR = 7.97, 95% CI 1.51-41.84, P = 0.01). Among patients who received CT and ET as subsequent treatments, the median progression-free survival (PFS) was 7.5 months (95% CI 6.2-8.8) and 6.0 months (95% CI 4.1-7.9), respectively (p = 0.03). Among patients who were resistant to Ful (PFS < 6 months), the PFS on CT was significantly longer than that on ET (7.1 months vs 3.9 months, p = 0.024, HR = 0.5, 95% CI 0.26-0.97); however, among patients with a PFS ≥6 months on Ful, the efficacy of CT and ET was similar. Additionally, among patients with an older age, bone-only metastasis and ≥3 metastatic sites, no significant difference was observed between the CT and ET groups. Moreover, ET was much more tolerated than CT in terms of the incidence of grade 3/4 toxicities (9.6% vs 27%, P < 0.05). Median overall survival (OS) was not reached. Thus, our findings reveal the pattern of post-Ful treatment in current clinical practice and provide evidence on the efficacy, safety and choice of these treatments.

Management of mTOR inhibitors oral mucositis: current state of knowledge

Introduction: Mucositis is a well-known side effect of classic anticancer treatments (chemotherapy and radiotherapy). Thanks to the major developments in personalizing treatments through the development of targeted treatment, various specific intraoral lesions have been described. Purpose: mTOR inhibitors are targeted anticancer treatments that are used to treat various cancer types. They can cause intraoral ulcerations that can be serious, and that can lead to a dose reduction or the anticancer treatment being stopped altogether. The management of these disabling and painful lesions is a major part of ensuring the efficiency of the cancer treatments. The objective of this article is to evaluate the current knowledge about the different treatments used nowadays, especially the preventive treatments. Conclusion: An efficient management of the lesions is a major part of the management of patients treated with mTOR inhibitors and should be carried out by the oral cavity specialists.

Hormone-dependent breast cancer: Targeting autophagy and PI3K overcomes Exemestane-acquired resistance

The leading cause of cancer death in women around the world is breast cancer. The aromatase inhibitors (AIs) are considered - as first-line treatment for estrogen receptor-positive (ER⁺) breast tumors, in postmenopausal women. Exemestane (Exe) is a powerful steroidal AI, however, despite its therapeutic success, Exe-acquired resistance may occur leading to tumor relapse. Our group previously demonstrated that autophagy acts as a pro-survival process in Exe-induced cell death of ER⁺ sensitive breast cancer cells. In this work, the role of autophagy and its relationship with the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway in Exe-acquired resistance was explored. In that way, the mechanism behind the effects of the combination of Exe with pan-PI3K, or autophagic inhibitors, was studied in a long-term estrogen deprived ER⁺ breast cancer cell line (LTEDaro cells). Our results indicate that Exe induces autophagy as a cytoprotective mechanism linked to acquired resistance. Moreover, it was demonstrated that by inhibiting autophagy and/or PI3K pathway it is possible to revert Exe-resistance through apoptosis promotion, disruption of cell cycle, and inhibition of cell survival pathways. This work provides new insights into the mechanisms involved in Exe-acquired resistance, pointing autophagy as an attractive therapeutic target to surpass it. Thus, it highlights new targets that together with aromatase inhibition may improve ER⁺ breast cancer therapy, overcoming AIs-acquired resistance.

Oral stomatitis and mTOR inhibitors: A review of current evidence in 20,915 patients

BACKGROUND

Traditional treatment of malignancies with chemotherapeutic agents is often affected by the damage inflicted on non-cancerous cells. Toxicities of the oral cavity, such as mucositis and stomatitis, are some of the most significant and unavoidable toxicities associated with anti-cancer therapies. For such reason, in the last decades, newer targeted agents have been developed aiming to decrease the rates of side effects on healthy cells. Unfortunately, targeted anti-cancer therapies also showed significant rate of toxicity on healthy tissues. mTOR inhibitors showed some adverse events, such as hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, hypophosphatemia, hematologic toxicities, and mucocutaneous eruption, but the most important are still stomatitis and skin rash, often reported as dose-limiting side effects.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A search of the literature was performed by authors on the PubMed online database using the following key words: "sirolimus" OR "everolimus" OR "temsirolimus" OR "deforolimus" OR "ridaforolimus" combined with the Boolean operator AND with the terms: "stomatitis" OR "mucositis" OR "oral pain." Titles and abstracts of 382 potentially relevant studies were screened; of these, 114 studies were excluded because they did not report the inclusion criteria. In the second round, 268 studies were read full-text, but only 135 reported the inclusion criteria and were included for data extraction. Of the included studies, 95 referred to everolimus use, 16 to ridaforolimus, and 26 to temsirolimus (two studies referred to both everolimus and temsirolimus).

RESULTS

The incidence rate of stomatitis according to the agent used was 25.07% (3,959/15,787) for everolimus, 27.02% (724/2,679) for temsirolimus, and 54.76% (598/1,092) for ridaforolimus. All the three agents analyzed showed high rates of low-grade stomatitis (G1-G2), while the onset of severe stomatitis (G3-G4) was rare.

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of the reports with patients treated with everolimus, temsirolimus, and ridaforolimus showed a clear prevalence of stomatitis grade 1 or 2. These data differ from that of patients treated with conventional chemotherapy in which mucositis is predominantly of grade 3 or 4.

Cost-Effectiveness of Second-Line Endocrine Therapies in Postmenopausal Women with Hormone Receptor-positive and Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2-negative Metastatic Breast Cancer in Japan

BACKGROUND

Exemestane (EXE), exemestane + everolimus (EXE + EVE), toremifene (TOR), and fulvestrant (FUL) are second-line endocrine therapies for postmenopausal hormone receptor-positive (HR +)/human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative (HER2 -) metastatic breast cancer (mBC) in Japan. Although the efficacy of these therapies has been shown in recent studies, cost-effectiveness has not yet been determined in Japan.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to examine the cost-effectiveness of second-line endocrine therapies for the treatment of postmenopausal women with HR + and HER2 - mBC.

METHODS

A Markov model was developed to analyze the cost-effectiveness of the therapies over a 15-year time horizon from a public healthcare payer's perspective. The efficacy and utility parameters were determined via a systematic search of the literature. Direct medical care costs were used. A discount rate of 2% was applied for costs and outcomes. Subgroup analysis was performed for non-visceral metastasis. A series of sensitivity analyses, including probabilistic sensitivity analysis (PSA) and threshold analysis were performed.

RESULTS

Base-case analyses estimated incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) of 3 million and 6 million Japanese yen (JPY)/quality-adjusted life year (QALY) gained for TOR and FUL 500 mg relative to EXE, respectively. FUL 250 mg and EXE + EVE were dominated. The overall survival (OS) highly influenced the ICER. With a willingness-to-pay (WTP) threshold of 5 million JPY/QALY, the probability of TOR being cost-effective was the highest. Subgroup analysis in non-visceral metastasis revealed 0.4 and 10% reduction in ICER from the base-case results of FUL5 500 mg versus EXE and TOR versus EXE, respectively, while threshold analysis indicated EVE and FUL prices should be reduced 73 and 30%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

As a second-line therapy for postmenopausal women with HR +/HER2 - mBC, TOR may be cost-effective relative to other alternatives and seems to be the most favorable choice, based on a WTP threshold of 5 million JPY/QALY. FUL 250 mg is expected to be as costly and effective as EXE. The cost-effectiveness of EXE + EVE and FUL 500 mg could be improved by a large price reduction. However, the results are highly sensitive to the hazard ratio of OS. Policy makers should carefully interpret and utilize these findings.

Everolimus (EVE) and exemestane (EXE) in patients with advanced breast cancer aged ≥ 65 years: new lessons for clinical practice from the EVA study

BACKGROUND

The present analysis focuses on real-world data of Everolimus-Exemestane in advanced HR+ve, HER2-ve elderly breast cancer patients (aged 65 years) included in the EVA study, with unique findings in those aged 70 years.

METHODS

Data are collected from clinical records and analysed according to age cut-off (< 65 years; 65 - 69 years and {greater than or equal to} 70 years). Relationship of analyzed variables with response were tested by mean of a Mantel-Haenszel chi square test. Time to event analysis was described by Kaplan Meier approach and association with baseline characteristics was analysed by stratified log-rank test and proportional hazard model.

RESULTS

From July 2013 to December 2015, the EVA study enrolled overall 404 pts. 154 patients out of 404 (38,1%) were aged {greater than or equal to} 65 years, of whom 87 were {greater than or equal to} 70 years. Median duration of EVE treatment was 28.5 weeks (95% CI 19.0 - 33.8) in patients aged 65-69 years and 24,4 weeks (95% CI 19,2 - 33,2) in those aged {greater than or equal to} 70 years. Fewer patients aged 65 years received the highest EVE Dose-Intensity (>7.5 mg/day) in comparison to younger patients (49,6% vs. 66,8%). Grade 3–4 toxicities occurred to 55 patients (35,7%), mainly stomatitis (10,9%), rash (5,8%) and non-infectious pneumonitis (NIP) (3,6%). Some toxicities, such as weight loss and anaemia were peculiarly observed in patients aged {greater than or equal to} 70 years. Five treatment-related deaths were collected (3,2%).

CONCLUSIONS

EVE-EXE combination remains one of the potential treatments in HR+ patients also for elderly ones.

Exemestane and Everolimus combination treatment of hormone receptor positive, HER2 negative metastatic breast cancer: A retrospective study of 9 cancer centers in the Campania Region (Southern Italy) focused on activity, efficacy and safety

Exemestane (Exe) in combination with Everolimus (Eve) represents an important treatment option for patients diagnosed with hormone receptor positive (HR+), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 negative (HER2-) metastatic breast cancer (MBC), which was previously treated with non-steroidal aromatase inhibitors (NSAI). Data from unselected populations may be useful for defining the optimal therapeutic algorithm within a clinical setting. Data from 264 HR+, HER2-MBC patients who received Exe-Eve treatment in combination, following the failure of NSAIs was retrospectively analyzed. Different lines of endocrine treatment (ET) were investigated to evaluate the efficacy and toxicity of the treatment within the ‘everyday clinical practice’ population. The disease control rate (DCR) was 73.1%, with no statistically significant difference among the different settings. At a median follow-up of 42 months, the median progression free survival (PFS) was 11.6, 9.7 and 7.5 months for patients treated with Exe-Eve as first, second or third line therapy, respectively. There was a statistically significant correlation with younger age, no previous adjuvant chemotherapy (CT), no previous adjuvant endocrine therapy (ET), HT duration ≥36 months, involvement of liver and/or lung, no prior CT for metastatic disease and PS=0 at the start of treatment. The median overall survival (OS) was 33.0 months; at a median follow-up of 67 months, the median OS was 43.1, 31.7 and 27.9 months in patients treated with Exe-Eve in first, second or third line therapy, respectively. On multivariate analysis, diabetes and previous CT for metastatic disease were revealed to correlate with a worse outcome. Conversely, the presence of mucositis was significantly associated with long-term survival. Overall, Exe-Eve was typically well tolerated and the majority toxicities were G1 or 2, while treatment discontinuation due to unacceptable toxicity was only required in 5.7% of patients. Despite the limitations due to the observational nature of this study, the findings suggest that treatment with Exe-Eve is an active and safe therapeutic option for endocrine-sensitive MBC patients in a real-world clinical setting, regardless of treatment lines.

A pharmacological rationale for improved everolimus dosing in oncology and transplant patients

AIMS

Everolimus is a drug from the class of mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors used for both immunosuppressant and oncological indications. We postulate that there is room for improvement of dosing, as the optimal immunosuppressive dose in calcineurin-free regimens is unknown and since the once daily dosing regimen for oncological indications is often associated with treatment-limiting toxicity.

METHODS

We developed a mechanistic population pharmacokinetic model for everolimus in cancer and transplant patients and explored alternative dosing regimens.

RESULTS

We found that formulation did not influence bioavailability and that use of >20 mg prednisolone daily increased everolimus clearance. In transplant patients, the approved dose of 0.75-1 mg twice daily (BID) results in subtherapeutic trough levels (<6 μg l-1 ) and that a higher starting dose of 2.25-3 mg BID is required.

CONCLUSION

For oncological indications, our results encourage the investigation of dosing everolimus 3.75 mg BID in terms of superiority in safety and noninferiority in efficacy.

Everolimus as cancer therapy: Cardiotoxic or an unexpected antiatherogenic agent? A narrative review

Everolimus (EVE) is now approved by many agencies for the treatment of variable neoplasms. The risk for adverse events with this agent is not adequately defined. The purpose of this review is to summarize the EVE-induced cardiotoxic effect as an antineoplastic factor on patients who received the specific drug and to evaluate any possible antiatherogenic effects due to systemic use of the drug. Articles were searched on PubMed until August 2017. Articles included an expanded-access clinical trial, as well as phase 2 or 3 clinical trials (most of them were randomized). Three experimental studies that provided evidence for the possible antiatherogenic action of EVE were also included. In addition, only studies that evaluated the systemic use of the drug were included. To be eligible for inclusion, trials should have evaluated patients with malignancy, treated by EVE, or assessed the antiatherogenic effect of the systemic use of EVE through clinical or experimental studies. Only articles written in English language were included. No direct cardiotoxic adverse effects (arrhythmia, acute coronary event, heart failure, and echocardiography pathologic findings) were reported. Patients appeared to have a risk of developing adverse events that could be associated with the risk factors of cardiovascular disease. In all clinical studies, patients suffered hyperglycemia, and in most of them, hyperlipidemia was observed. Fewer studies have reported the incidence of hypertension. Finally, there is evidence claiming that EVE has an antiatherogenic action. Three experimental studies have shown that the systemic use of EVE in mice or rabbits with atherosclerotic lesions led to the reduction in atheromatous plaque growth. However, we could not find any clinical study that showed similar results in patients with cancer. To sum up, the only reported cardiac adverse event of EVE treatment in patients with cancer is indirect. They are associated with the risk factors of cardiovascular disease (hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and hypertension), which are mainly mild and easily manageable. Further research and data that support the antiatherogenic action of EVE are needed.

Drug discovery targeting the mTOR pathway

Mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is the kinase subunit of two structurally and functionally distinct large multiprotein complexes, referred to as mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) and mTORC2. mTORC1 and mTORC2 play key physiological roles as they control anabolic and catabolic processes in response to external cues in a variety of tissues and organs. However, mTORC1 and mTORC2 activities are deregulated in widespread human diseases, including cancer. Cancer cells take advantage of mTOR oncogenic signaling to drive their proliferation, survival, metabolic transformation, and metastatic potential. Therefore, mTOR lends itself very well as a therapeutic target for innovative cancer treatment. mTOR was initially identified as the target of the antibiotic rapamycin that displayed remarkable antitumor activity in vitro Promising preclinical studies using rapamycin and its derivatives (rapalogs) demonstrated efficacy in many human cancer types, hence supporting the launch of numerous clinical trials aimed to evaluate the real effectiveness of mTOR-targeted therapies. However, rapamycin and rapalogs have shown very limited activity in most clinical contexts, also when combined with other drugs. Thus, novel classes of mTOR inhibitors with a stronger antineoplastic potency have been developed. Nevertheless, emerging clinical data suggest that also these novel mTOR-targeting drugs may have a weak antitumor activity. Here, we summarize the current status of available mTOR inhibitors and highlight the most relevant results from both preclinical and clinical studies that have provided valuable insights into both their efficacy and failure.

Breast cancer patients have increased risk of developing mTOR inhibitor-associated stomatitis

A total of 115 patients who used everolimus were evaluated. The mean age was 57 (±13.3) years old, and 87 patients were women (75.6%). mTOR inhibitor-associated stomatitis (mIAS) was observed in 36 patients (31.3%). The lesions ranged from 0.5 cm to 1.5 cm, and the tongue was the main site affected. In addition, 21 patients (58.3%) required a dose reduction of everolimus due to mIAS. Patients who had breast cancer presented 2.29-fold higher risk for developing mIAS when compared to patients with kidney or neuroendocrine tumors. This study emphasizes the high prevalence of mIAS in patients using everolimus, in particular, in patients with breast cancer.

Emerging Perspectives on mTOR Inhibitor-Associated Pneumonitis in Breast Cancer

Substantial improvements in the early detection and treatment of breast cancer have led to improvements in survival, but breast cancer remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in women. In 2012, the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor everolimus was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of advanced breast cancer in patients resistant to endocrine therapy. Although everolimus is generally well tolerated, mTOR inhibitor-associated pneumonitis is one of the most common adverse drug events leading to treatment discontinuation. To date, the underlying pathophysiology of this toxicity is unclear, and this uncertainty may hinder the optimization of management strategies. However, experiences from breast cancer and renal cell carcinoma clinical trials indicate that mTOR inhibitor-associated pneumonitis can be effectively managed by early detection, accurate diagnosis, and prompt intervention that generally involves everolimus dose reductions, interruptions, or discontinuation. Management can be achieved by a multidisciplinary approach that involves the collaborative efforts of nurses, oncologists, radiologists, infectious disease specialists, pulmonologists, clinical pharmacists, and pathologists. Comprehensive education must be provided to all health care professionals involved in managing patients receiving everolimus therapy. Although general recommendations on the management of mTOR inhibitor-associated pneumonitis have been published, there is a lack of consensus on the optimal management of this potentially serious complication. This article provides an overview of mTOR inhibitor-associated pneumonitis, with a focus on the detection, accurate diagnosis, and optimal management of this class-related complication of mTOR inhibitor therapy.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

This article summarizes the pathogenesis, clinical presentation, incidence, detection, and optimal management of everolimus-related noninfectious pneumonitis in breast cancer. In particular, this article provides a detailed overview of the important aspects of the detection, accurate diagnosis, and appropriate management of mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor-associated pneumonitis. In addition, this article emphasizes that effective management of this adverse drug event in patients with breast cancer will require a multidisciplinary approach and collaboration among various health care professionals.

Stomatitis associated with mammalian target of rapamycin inhibition: A review of pathogenesis, prevention, treatment, and clinical implications for oral practice in metastatic breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Patients with metastatic breast cancer may develop oral morbidities that result from therapeutic interventions. Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor-associated stomatitis (mIAS) is a common adverse event (AE), secondary to mTOR inhibitor therapy, that can have a negative impact on treatment adherence, quality of life, and health care costs. A multidisciplinary team approach is important to minimize mIAS and to maximize treatment benefits to patients with breast cancer. In this review, we discuss the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and natural history of mIAS. Current and new management strategies for the prevention and treatment of mIAS are described in the context of fostering a coordinated team care approach to optimizing patient care.

TYPES OF STUDIES REVIEWED

The authors conducted a PubMed search from 2007 through 2017 using the terms "stomatitis," "mIAS," "everolimus," "mTOR," "metastatic breast cancer," and "oral care." They selected articles published in peer-reviewed journals that reported controlled trials and evidence-based guidelines.

RESULTS

mIAS can be distinguished from mucositis caused by cytotoxic chemotherapy or radiotherapy on the basis of cause, clinical presentation, and treatment paradigms. Specific preventive and therapeutic management strategies can be implemented across the continuum of patient oral health care.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Oral health care providers are on the frontline of oral health care for patients with metastatic breast cancer and are uniquely positioned to provide patient education, advocate accurate reporting of mIAS, and support early identification, monitoring, and prompt intervention to mitigate the severity and duration of this manageable, potentially dose-limiting AE.

Bone-Targeted Therapies in Cancer-Induced Bone Disease

Cancer-induced bone disease is a major source of morbidity and mortality in cancer patients. Thus, effective bone-targeted therapies are essential to improve disease-free, overall survival and quality of life of cancer patients with bone metastases. Depending of the cancer-type, bone metastases mainly involve the modulation of osteoclast and/or osteoblast activity by tumour cells. To inhibit metastatic bone disease effectively, it is imperative to understand its underlying mechanisms and identify the target cells for therapy. If the aim is to prevent bone metastasis, it is essential to target not only bone metastatic features in the tumour cells, but also tumour-nurturing bone microenvironment properties. The currently available bone-targeted agents mainly affect osteoclasts, inhibiting bone resorption (e.g. bisphosphonates, denosumab). Some agents targeting osteoblasts begin to emerge which target osteoblasts (e.g. romosozumab), activating bone formation. Moreover, certain drugs initially thought to target only osteoclasts are now known to have a dual action (activating osteoblasts and inhibiting osteoclasts, e.g. proteasome inhibitors). This review will focus on the evolution of bone-targeted therapies for the treatment of cancer-induced bone disease, summarizing preclinical and clinical findings obtained with anti-resorptive and bone anabolic therapies.

Pharmacokinetically-targeted dosed everolimus maintenance therapy in lymphoma patients

BACKGROUND

Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, is active in refractory lymphomas. However, toxicity with flat dosing limits its usage. Speculatively, pharmacokinetically-targeted dosing could improve tolerability. Therefore, we studied serum-trough dosing with rituximab as maintenance after high-dose cyclophosphamide (HDC) consolidation in lymphoma patients.

PATIENTS/METHODS

After HDC, everolimus was dosed to serum trough levels (goal 3-15 ng/mL), with quarterly rituximab infusions for 1 year while maintaining < grade II non-hematologic and < grade III hematologic toxicities. Adult patients in first PR/CR with: mantle cell, transformed, double-hit, or high risk chronic lymphocytic leukemia or in second PR for any relapsed B cell lymphoma were eligible. Prophylaxis was given for encapsulated organisms, HSV and PCP. Serum IgG levels were maintained > 500 mg/dL.

RESULTS

49 patients, median age: 59.0 years enrolled; MCL (26), CLL (10), transformed lymphoma (7), and other histologies (6). During the life of the study, the most frequent everolimus dosing has been 2.5 mg daily or 2.5 mg every other day; at these doses, serum levels are within the therapeutic range and non-hematologic toxicity is rare. At a median follow-up of 27.1 months, three patients remain on active therapy. Two patients withdrew secondary to potentially-attributable adverse events including a bacterial pneumonia and a viral pneumonia; this low rate of discontinuation compares well to other long-term everolimus trials. While a 58 and 76% EFS at 30 months for the entire cohort and MCL cohort, respectively, compares similarly to previously published HDC/rituximab data, longer follow-up is required.

CONCLUSIONS

Pharmacokinetically-targeted dosing appears to increase everolimus tolerability. This finding may be applicable to other patient populations.

mTOR inhibitors, a new era for metastatic luminal HER2-negative breast cancer? A systematic review and a meta-analysis of randomized trials

We evaluated if standard hormonal therapy (HT) could be improved by the addition of mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors (mTOR-I) in metastatic luminal breast cancer. A meta-analysis on 4 phase II-III randomized clinical trials was performed. Pooled hazard ratio (HR) for progression free survival (PFS)/ time to progression (TTP) was 0.62 in favor of mTOR-I+HT arm (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.55-0.70; p<0.0001). There was significant heterogeneity for PFS/TTP (Cochran's Q 32, p<0.0001, I² index 90.6%). Pooled HR for overall survival (OS) was 0.84 in favor of the combination arm (95% CI 0.71-0.99; p=0.04). Heterogeneity was not significant (Cochran's Q 4.47, p=0.1, I² index 55.3%). Pooled risk ratio (RR) for objective response rate (ORR) was 0.88 in favor of experimental arm (95% CI 0.85-0.91; p<0.0001). Heterogeneity was not significant (Cochran's Q 2.11, p=0.3, I² index 5.2%). Adverse events (AEs), in particular those of grade 3-4, mostly occurred in mTOR-I+HT arm. Combination therapy of HT plus mTOR-I improves the outcome of metastatic luminal breast cancer patients. Our results provide evidence of a class-effect of these targeting molecules.

Ongoing unmet needs in treating estrogen receptor-positive/HER2-negative metastatic breast cancer

Estrogen receptor-positive (ER+)/human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 negative (HER2-) advanced or metastatic breast cancer (MBC) is the most common MBC subtype and currently remains incurable, with a median overall survival of 24.8 months (95% confidence interval, 21.3-30.3). Common sites of metastases are bone, viscera, and brain, causing significant symptoms that negatively affect patient functioning, quality of life (QoL), and work productivity. Guidelines state that endocrine therapy (ET) is preferable to chemotherapy as first-line treatment for patients with ER+ MBC, regardless of limited visceral metastases, unless rapid tumor response is required or ET resistance is suspected. Although response rates up to 40% have been reported for first-line MBC treatment, the majority of initial responders eventually develop ET resistance. Notwithstanding the steep decline in efficacy between first and later lines of ET, some patients may receive chemotherapy earlier than necessary. Although new treatments have been approved for patients with ER+/HER2- advanced or MBC in the past decade, neither survival nor QoL appear to have improved significantly. Thus, there remain significant unmet needs for this patient population, including improved survival, maintaining or improving patient QoL, and emphasizing the importance of treatment selection to assist healthcare practitioners managing patient care. In this review, we identify current challenges and unmet needs in this patient population, review cutting-edge treatments, and provide clinically relevant suggestions for treatment selection that can optimize outcomes and patients' health-related QoL.

A Semi-Physiological Population Model to Quantify the Effect of Hematocrit on Everolimus Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Cancer Patients

Introduction and Objective

Everolimus (a drug from the class of mammalian target of rapamycin [mTOR] inhibitors) is associated with frequent toxicity-related dose reductions. Everolimus accumulates in erythrocytes, but the extent to which hematocrit affects everolimus plasma pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics is unknown. We aimed to investigate the everolimus pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics and the influence of hematocrit in cancer patients.

Methods

A semi-physiological pharmacokinetic model for everolimus was developed from pharmacokinetic data from 73 patients by non-linear mixed-effects modeling. Using a simulation study with a known pharmacodynamic model describing S6K1 (a downstream mTOR effector) inhibition, we investigated the impact of hematocrit.

Results

The apparent volume of distribution of the central and peripheral compartment were estimated to be 207 L with a relative standard error (RSE) of 5.0 % and 485 L (RSE 4.2 %), respectively, with an inter-compartmental clearance of 72.1 L/h (RSE 3.2 %). The apparent intrinsic clearance was 198 L/h (RSE 4.3 %). A decrease in hematocrit from 45 % to 20 % resulted in a predicted reduction in whole-blood exposure of ~50 %, but everolimus plasma pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics were not affected. The predicted S6K1 inhibition was at a plateau level in the approved dose of 10 mg once daily.

Conclusions

A population pharmacokinetic model was developed for everolimus in cancer patients. Hematocrit influenced whole-blood pharmacokinetics, but not plasma pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics. Everolimus whole-blood concentrations should always be corrected for hematocrit. Since predicted mTOR inhibition was at a plateau level in the approved dose, dose reductions may have only a limited impact on mTOR inhibition.

Fasting glucose and body mass index as predictors of activity in breast cancer patients treated with everolimus-exemestane: The EverExt study

Evidence on everolimus in breast cancer has placed hyperglycemia among the most common high grade adverse events. Anthropometrics and biomarkers of glucose metabolism were investigated in a observational study of 102 postmenopausal, HR + HER2- metastatic breast cancer patients treated with everolimus-exemestane in first and subsequent lines. Best overall response (BR) and clinical benefit rate (CBR) were assessed across subgroups defined upon fasting glucose (FG) and body mass index (BMI). Survival was estimated by Kaplan-Meier method and log-rank test. Survival predictors were tested in Cox models. Median follow up was 12.4 months (1.0–41.0). The overall cohort showed increasing levels of FG and decreasing BMI (p < 0.001). Lower FG fasting glucose at BR was more commonly associated with C/PR or SD compared with PD (p < 0.001). We also observed a somewhat higher BMI associated with better response (p = 0.052). More patients in the lowest FG category achieved clinical benefit compared to the highest (p < 0.001), while no relevant differences emerged for BMI. Fasting glucose at re-assessment was also predictive of PFS (p = 0.037), as confirmed in models including BMI and line of therapy (p = 0.049). Treatment discontinuation was significantly associated with changes in FG (p = 0.014). Further research is warranted to corroborate these findings and clarify the underlying mechanisms.