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Zang Y, Guo B, Qiu Y, Liu H, Opyrchal M, Lu X. Adaptive phase I-II clinical trial designs identifying optimal biological doses for targeted agents and immunotherapies. Clin Trials 2024; 21:298-307. [PMID: 38205644 PMCID: PMC11132954 DOI: 10.1177/17407745231220661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Targeted agents and immunotherapies have revolutionized cancer treatment, offering promising options for various cancer types. Unlike traditional therapies the principle of "more is better" is not always applicable to these new therapies due to their unique biomedical mechanisms. As a result, various phase I-II clinical trial designs have been proposed to identify the optimal biological dose that maximizes the therapeutic effect of targeted therapies and immunotherapies by jointly monitoring both efficacy and toxicity outcomes. This review article examines several innovative phase I-II clinical trial designs that utilize accumulated efficacy and toxicity outcomes to adaptively determine doses for subsequent patients and identify the optimal biological dose, maximizing the overall therapeutic effect. Specifically, we highlight three categories of phase I-II designs: efficacy-driven, utility-based, and designs incorporating multiple efficacy endpoints. For each design, we review the dose-outcome model, the definition of the optimal biological dose, the dose-finding algorithm, and the software for trial implementation. To illustrate the concepts, we also present two real phase I-II trial examples utilizing the EffTox and ISO designs. Finally, we provide a classification tree to summarize the designs discussed in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Zang
- Department of Biostatistics and Health Data Sciences, School of Medicine, Indiana University
- Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, School of Medicine, Indiana University
| | - Beibei Guo
- Department of Experimental Statistics, Louisiana State University
| | - Yingjie Qiu
- Department of Biostatistics and Health Data Sciences, School of Medicine, Indiana University
| | - Hao Liu
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University
| | | | - Xiongbin Lu
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, Indiana University
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Wages NA, Dillon PM, Portell CA, Slingluff CL, Petroni GR. Applications of the partial-order continual reassessment method in the early development of treatment combinations. Clin Trials 2024; 21:331-339. [PMID: 38554038 DOI: 10.1177/17407745241234634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/01/2024]
Abstract
Combination therapy is increasingly being explored as a promising approach for improving cancer treatment outcomes. However, identifying effective dose combinations in early oncology drug development is challenging due to limited sample sizes in early-phase clinical trials. This task becomes even more complex when multiple agents are being escalated simultaneously, potentially leading to a loss of monotonic toxicity order with respect to the dose. Traditional single-agent trial designs are insufficient for this multi-dimensional problem, necessitating the development and implementation of dose-finding methods specifically designed for drug combinations. While, in practice, approaches to this problem have focused on preselecting combinations with a known toxicity order and applying single-agent designs, this limits the number of combinations considered and may miss promising dose combinations. In recent years, several novel designs have been proposed for exploring partially ordered drug combination spaces with the goal of identifying a maximum tolerated dose combination, based on safety, or an optimal dose combination, based on toxicity and efficacy. However, their implementation in clinical practice remains limited. In this article, we describe the application of the partial order continual reassessment method and its extensions for combination therapies in early-phase clinical trials. We present completed trials that use safety endpoints to identify maximum tolerated dose combinations and adaptively use both safety and efficacy endpoints to determine optimal treatment strategies. We discuss the effectiveness of the partial-order continual reassessment method and its extensions in identifying optimal treatment strategies and provide our experience with executing these novel adaptive designs in practice. By utilizing innovative dose-finding methods, researchers and clinicians can more effectively navigate the challenges of combination therapy development, ultimately improving patient outcomes in the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nolan A Wages
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Population Health, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Patrick M Dillon
- Division of Hematology & Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Craig A Portell
- Division of Hematology & Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Craig L Slingluff
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Gina R Petroni
- Division of Translational Research & Applied Statistics, Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
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Solovyeva O, Dimairo M, Weir CJ, Hee SW, Espinasse A, Ursino M, Patel D, Kightley A, Hughes S, Jaki T, Mander A, Evans TRJ, Lee S, Hopewell S, Rantell KR, Chan AW, Bedding A, Stephens R, Richards D, Roberts L, Kirkpatrick J, de Bono J, Yap C. Development of consensus-driven SPIRIT and CONSORT extensions for early phase dose-finding trials: the DEFINE study. BMC Med 2023; 21:246. [PMID: 37408015 PMCID: PMC10324137 DOI: 10.1186/s12916-023-02937-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early phase dose-finding (EPDF) trials are crucial for the development of a new intervention and influence whether it should be investigated in further trials. Guidance exists for clinical trial protocols and completed trial reports in the SPIRIT and CONSORT guidelines, respectively. However, both guidelines and their extensions do not adequately address the characteristics of EPDF trials. Building on the SPIRIT and CONSORT checklists, the DEFINE study aims to develop international consensus-driven guidelines for EPDF trial protocols (SPIRIT-DEFINE) and reports (CONSORT-DEFINE). METHODS The initial generation of candidate items was informed by reviewing published EPDF trial reports. The early draft items were refined further through a review of the published and grey literature, analysis of real-world examples, citation and reference searches, and expert recommendations, followed by a two-round modified Delphi process. Patient and public involvement and engagement (PPIE) was pursued concurrently with the quantitative and thematic analysis of Delphi participants' feedback. RESULTS The Delphi survey included 79 new or modified SPIRIT-DEFINE (n = 36) and CONSORT-DEFINE (n = 43) extension candidate items. In Round One, 206 interdisciplinary stakeholders from 24 countries voted and 151 stakeholders voted in Round Two. Following Round One feedback, one item for CONSORT-DEFINE was added in Round Two. Of the 80 items, 60 met the threshold for inclusion (≥ 70% of respondents voted critical: 26 SPIRIT-DEFINE, 34 CONSORT-DEFINE), with the remaining 20 items to be further discussed at the consensus meeting. The parallel PPIE work resulted in the development of an EPDF lay summary toolkit consisting of a template with guidance notes and an exemplar. CONCLUSIONS By detailing the development journey of the DEFINE study and the decisions undertaken, we envision that this will enhance understanding and help researchers in the development of future guidelines. The SPIRIT-DEFINE and CONSORT-DEFINE guidelines will allow investigators to effectively address essential items that should be present in EPDF trial protocols and reports, thereby promoting transparency, comprehensiveness, and reproducibility. TRIAL REGISTRATION SPIRIT-DEFINE and CONSORT-DEFINE are registered with the EQUATOR Network ( https://www.equator-network.org/ ).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Munyaradzi Dimairo
- Clinical Trials Research Unit, School of Health and Related Research, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Christopher J Weir
- Edinburgh Clinical Trials Unit, Usher Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Siew Wan Hee
- University Hospitals Coventry & Warwickshire NHS Trust, Coventry, UK
- University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | | | - Moreno Ursino
- Inserm, Centre de Recherche Des Cordeliers, Sorbonne UniversitéUniversité Paris Cité, 75006, Paris, France
- HeKA, Inria Paris, 75015, Paris, France
- Unit of Clinical Epidemiology, AP-HP, CHU Robert Debré, CIC-EC 1426, Paris, France
- RECaP/F-CRIN, Inserm, 5400, Nancy, France
| | | | - Andrew Kightley
- Patient and Public Involvement and Engagement (PPIE) Lead, Lichfield, UK
| | | | - Thomas Jaki
- MRC Biostatistics Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | | | | | - Shing Lee
- Columbia University, Mailman School of Public Health, New York, USA
| | - Sally Hopewell
- Oxford Clinical Trials Research Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - An-Wen Chan
- Department of Medicine, Women's College Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Johann de Bono
- The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
- The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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Jin H, Yin G. CFO: Calibration-free odds design for phase I/II clinical trials. Stat Methods Med Res 2022; 31:1051-1066. [PMID: 35238697 PMCID: PMC9527856 DOI: 10.1177/09622802221079353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Recent revolution in oncology treatment has witnessed emergence and fast development of the targeted therapy and immunotherapy. In contrast to traditional cytotoxic agents, these types of treatment tend to be more tolerable and thus efficacy is of more concern. As a result, seamless phase I/II trials have gained enormous popularity, which aim to identify the optimal biological dose (OBD) rather than the maximum tolerated dose (MTD). To enhance the accuracy and robustness for identification of OBD, we develop a calibration-free odds (CFO) design. For toxicity monitoring, the CFO design casts the current dose in competition with its two neighboring doses to obtain an admissible set. For efficacy monitoring, CFO selects the dose that has the largest posterior probability to achieve the highest efficacy under the Bayesian paradigm. In contrast to most of the existing designs, the prominent merit of CFO is that its main dose-finding component is model-free and calibration-free, which can greatly ease the burden on artificial input of design parameters and thus enhance the robustness and objectivity of the design. Extensive simulation studies demonstrate that the CFO design strikes a good balance between efficiency and safety for MTD identification under phase I trials, and yields comparable or sometimes slightly better performance for OBD identification than the competing methods under phase I/II trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huaqing Jin
- Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, 25809The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
| | - Guosheng Yin
- Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, 25809The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
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Tidwell RSS, Thall PF, Yuan Y. Lessons Learned From Implementing a Novel Bayesian Adaptive Dose-Finding Design in Advanced Pancreatic Cancer. JCO Precis Oncol 2021; 5:PO.21.00212. [PMID: 34805718 PMCID: PMC8594665 DOI: 10.1200/po.21.00212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Novel Bayesian adaptive designs provide an effective way to improve clinical trial efficiency. These designs are superior to conventional methods, but implementing them can be challenging. The aim of this article was to describe what we learned while applying a novel Bayesian phase I-II design in a recent trial. METHODS The primary goal of the trial was to optimize radiation therapy (RT) dose among three levels (low, standard, and high), given either with placebo (P) or an investigational agent (A), for treating locally advanced, radiation-naive pancreatic cancer, deemed appropriate for RT rather than surgery. Up to 48 patients were randomly assigned fairly between RT plus P and RT plus A, with RT dose-finding done within each arm using the late-onset efficacy-toxicity design on the basis of two coprimary end points, tumor response and dose-limiting toxicity, both evaluated at up to 90 days. The random assignment was blinded, but within each arm, unblinded RT doses were chosen adaptively using software developed within the institution. RESULTS Implementing the design involved double-blind balance-restricted random assignment, real-time assessment of patient outcomes to evaluate the efficacy-toxicity trade-off for each RT dose in each arm to optimize each patient's RT dose adaptively, and transition from a single-center trial to a multicenter trial. We present lessons learned and illustrative documentation. CONCLUSION Implementing novel Bayesian adaptive trial designs requires close collaborations between physicians, pharmacists, statisticians, data managers, and sponsors. The process is difficult but manageable and essential for efficient trial conduct. Close collaboration during trial conduct is a key component of any trial that includes real-time adaptive decision rules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca S S Tidwell
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX
| | - Peter F Thall
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX
| | - Ying Yuan
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX
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Lin R, Yin G, Shi H. Bayesian adaptive model selection design for optimal biological dose finding in phase I/II clinical trials. Biostatistics 2021; 24:277-294. [PMID: 34296266 PMCID: PMC10102885 DOI: 10.1093/biostatistics/kxab028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Identification of the optimal dose presents a major challenge in drug development with molecularly targeted agents, immunotherapy, as well as chimeric antigen receptor T-cell treatments. By casting dose finding as a Bayesian model selection problem, we propose an adaptive design by simultaneously incorporating the toxicity and efficacy outcomes to select the optimal biological dose (OBD) in phase I/II clinical trials. Without imposing any parametric assumption or shape constraint on the underlying dose-response curves, we specify curve-free models for both the toxicity and efficacy endpoints to determine the OBD. By integrating the observed data across all dose levels, the proposed design is coherent in dose assignment and thus greatly enhances efficiency and accuracy in pinning down the right dose. Not only does our design possess a completely new yet flexible dose-finding framework, but it also has satisfactory and robust performance as demonstrated by extensive simulation studies. In addition, we show that our design enjoys desirable coherence properties, while most of existing phase I/II designs do not. We further extend the design to accommodate late-onset outcomes which are common in immunotherapy. The proposed design is exemplified with a phase I/II clinical trial in chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruitao Lin
- Department of Biostatistics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Guosheng Yin
- Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China
| | - Haolun Shi
- Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Dr, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada
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Soeny K, Bogacka B, Jones B. Model based dose personalization in clinical trials. COMPUTER METHODS AND PROGRAMS IN BIOMEDICINE 2021; 201:105957. [PMID: 33588339 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2021.105957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Personalized medicine is an important area of medical research which consists of designing therapies specifically for a patient or a group of patients. For drugs having a narrow therapeutic index or for vulnerable patients, methods such as therapeutic drug monitoring are used in a hospital setting to ensure that the blood concentration of the drug is maintained within a pre-decided range. However, such methods can not be used for drugs which are still in the developmental phase since, generally, insufficient information is available about the pharmacokinetic behaviour of the drug. METHODS In this paper, we present a new methodology for explicit optimization of dose regimens during the course of the pharmacokinetic studies such that the resultant blood concentration of the drug in each subject is maintained around a desired target concentration or within a target range. RESULTS We demonstrate that our algorithm is able to achieve the clinical objective of PK estimation while simultaneously individualizing the dose to every subject in the trial. Our algorithm computes dose regimens that, on average, have a relative efficiency of 97% with a standard deviation of less than 5%. The results show that the algorithm can be relied upon to ensure that the subjects in the trial are minimally over- and under-exposed to the test therapy. CONCLUSIONS The proposed methodology can assist in ensuring correct dosing to each subject in a clinical trial so that each subject receives only the intended exposure to the drug while simultaneously estimating the PK profile of the drug. Our methodology can also be applied in randomized concentration-controlled trials where maintenance of the target concentration in the subjects is a fundamental requirement for conducting these trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kabir Soeny
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, UK.
| | - Barbara Bogacka
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, UK
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Lee SM, Wages NA, Goodman KA, Lockhart AC. Designing Dose-Finding Phase I Clinical Trials: Top 10 Questions That Should Be Discussed With Your Statistician. JCO Precis Oncol 2021; 5:317-324. [PMID: 34151131 DOI: 10.1200/po.20.00379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the landscape in clinical trial development has changed to involve many molecularly targeted agents, immunotherapies, or radiotherapy, as a single agent or in combination. Given their different mechanisms of action and lengths of administration, these agents have different toxicity profiles, which has resulted in numerous challenges when applying traditional designs such as the 3 + 3 design in dose-finding clinical trials. Novel methods have been proposed to address these design challenges such as combinations of therapies or late-onset toxicities. However, their design and implementation require close collaboration between clinicians and statisticians to ensure that the appropriate design is selected to address the aims of the study and that the design assumptions are pertinent to the study drug. The goal of this paper is to provide guidelines for appropriate questions that should be considered early in the design stage to facilitate the interactions between clinical and statistical teams and to improve the design of dose-finding clinical trials for novel anticancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shing M Lee
- Department of Biostatistics, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Nolan A Wages
- Division of Translational Research and Applied Statistics, Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
| | - Karyn A Goodman
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
| | - A Craig Lockhart
- Division of Medical Oncology, University of Miami, Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, Miami, FL
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Polley MYC, Cheung YK. Early-Phase Platform Trials: A New Paradigm for Dose Finding and Treatment Screening in the Era of Precision Oncology. JCO Precis Oncol 2019; 3:1900057. [PMID: 32923846 DOI: 10.1200/po.19.00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Applications in early-phase cancer trials have motivated the development of many statistical designs since the late 1980s, including dose-finding methods, futility screening, treatment selection, and early stopping rules. These methods are often proposed to address the conventional cytotoxic therapeutics for neoplastic diseases and cancer. Recent advances in precision medicine have motivated novel trial designs, most notably the idea of master protocol (eg, platform trial, basket trial, umbrella trial, N-of-1 trial), for the evaluation of molecularly targeted cancer therapies. In this article, we review the concepts and methodology of early-phase cancer trial designs with a focus on dose finding and treatment screening and put these methods in the context of platform trials of molecularly targeted cancer therapies. Because most cancer trial designs have been developed for cytotoxic agents, we will discuss how these time-tested design principles hold relevance for targeted cancer therapies, and we will delineate how a master protocol may serve as an efficient platform for safety and efficacy evaluations of novel targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ying Kuen Cheung
- Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY
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Rossoni C, Bardet A, Geoerger B, Paoletti X. Sequential or combined designs for Phase I/II clinical trials? A simulation study. Clin Trials 2019; 16:635-644. [DOI: 10.1177/1740774519872702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background: Phase I and Phase II clinical trials aim at identifying a dose that is safe and active. Both phases are increasingly combined. For Phase I/II trials, two main types of designs are debated: a dose-escalation stage to select the maximum tolerated dose, followed by an expansion cohort to investigate its activity (dose-escalation followed by an expansion cohort), or a joint modelling to identify the best trade-off between toxicity and activity (efficacy–toxicity). We explore this question in the context of a paediatric Phase I/II platform trial. Methods: In series of simulations, we assessed the operating characteristics of dose-escalation followed by an expansion cohort (DE-EC) designs without and with reassessment of the maximum tolerated dose during the expansion cohort (DE-ECext) and of the efficacy–toxicity (EffTox) design. We investigated the probability to identify an active and tolerable agent, that is, the percentage of correct decision, for various dose-toxicity activity scenarios. Results: For a large therapeutic index, the percentage of correct decision reached 96.0% for efficacy–toxicity versus 76.1% for dose-escalation followed by an expansion cohort versus 79.6% for DE-ECext. Conversely, when all doses were deemed not active, the percentage of correct decision was 47% versus 55.9% versus 69.2%, respectively, for efficacy–toxicity, dose-escalation followed by an expansion cohort and DE-ECext. Finally, in the case of a narrow therapeutic index, the percentage of correct decision was 48.0% versus 64.3% versus 67.2%, respectively, efficacy–toxicity, dose-escalation followed by an expansion cohort and DE-ECext. Conclusion: As narrow indexes are common in oncology, according to the present results, the sequential dose-escalation followed by an expansion cohort is recommended. The importance to re-estimate the maximum tolerated dose during the expansion cohort is confirmed. However, despite their theoretical advantages, Phase I/II designs are challenged by the variations in populations between the Phase I and the Phase II parts and by the lagtime in the evaluation of toxicity and activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Rossoni
- Biostatistics and Epidemiology Department, Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
- INSERM U1018, CESP OncoStat, Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, Villejuif, France
| | - Aurélie Bardet
- Biostatistics and Epidemiology Department, Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
- INSERM U1018, CESP OncoStat, Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, Villejuif, France
| | - Birgit Geoerger
- Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Oncology, Gustave Roussy, Université Paris-Saclay, Villejuif, France
| | - Xavier Paoletti
- Biostatistics and Epidemiology Department, Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
- INSERM U1018, CESP OncoStat, Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, Villejuif, France
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