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Kellogg EA. Genetic control of branching patterns in grass inflorescences. THE PLANT CELL 2022; 34:2518-2533. [PMID: 35258600 PMCID: PMC9252490 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koac080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Inflorescence branching in the grasses controls the number of florets and hence the number of seeds. Recent data on the underlying genetics come primarily from rice and maize, although new data are accumulating in other systems as well. This review focuses on a window in developmental time from the production of primary branches by the inflorescence meristem through to the production of glumes, which indicate the transition to producing a spikelet. Several major developmental regulatory modules appear to be conserved among most or all grasses. Placement and development of primary branches are controlled by conserved auxin regulatory genes. Subtending bracts are repressed by a network including TASSELSHEATH4, and axillary branch meristems are regulated largely by signaling centers that are adjacent to but not within the meristems themselves. Gradients of SQUAMOSA-PROMOTER BINDING-like and APETALA2-like proteins and their microRNA regulators extend along the inflorescence axis and the branches, governing the transition from production of branches to production of spikelets. The relative speed of this transition determines the extent of secondary and higher order branching. This inflorescence regulatory network is modified within individual species, particularly as regards formation of secondary branches. Differences between species are caused both by modifications of gene expression and regulators and by presence or absence of critical genes. The unified networks described here may provide tools for investigating orphan crops and grasses other than the well-studied maize and rice.
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Bawa KS, Ingty T, Revell LJ, Shivaprakash KN. Correlated evolution of flower size and seed number in flowering plants (monocotyledons). ANNALS OF BOTANY 2019; 123:181-190. [PMID: 30165602 PMCID: PMC6344089 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcy154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Background and Aims Kin selection theory predicts that a parent may minimize deleterious effects of competition among seeds developing within ovaries by increasing the genetic relatedness of seeds within an ovary. Alternatively, the number of developing seeds could be reduced to one or a few. It has also been suggested that single or few seeded fruits may be correlated with small flowers, and multi-ovulate ovaries or many seeded fruits may be associated with large flowers with specialized pollination mechanisms. We examined the correlation between flower size and seed number in 69 families of monocotyledons to assess if correlations are significant and independent of phylogeny. Methods We first examined the effect of phylogenetic history on the evolution of these two traits, flower size and seed number, and then mapped correlations between them on the latest phylogenetic tree of monocotyledons. Results The results provide phylogenetically robust evidence of strong correlated evolution between flower size and seed number and show that correlated evolution of traits is not constrained by phylogenetic history of taxa. Moreover, the two character combinations, small flowers and a single or few seeds per fruit, and large flowers and many seeded fruits, have persisted in monocotyledons longer than other trait combinations. Conclusions The analyses support the suggestion that most angiosperms may fall into two categories, one with large flowers and many seeded fruits and the other with small flowers and single or few seeded fruits, and kin selection within ovaries may explain the observed patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamaljit S Bawa
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA, USA
- Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Bangalore, India
| | - Tenzing Ingty
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Liam J Revell
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA, USA
- Departamento de Ecología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - K N Shivaprakash
- Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Bangalore, India
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Pilatti V, Muchut SE, Uberti-Manassero NG, Vegetti AC, Reinheimer R. Diversity, systematics, and evolution of Cynodonteae inflorescences (Chloridoideae – Poaceae). SYST BIODIVERS 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/14772000.2017.1392371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vanesa Pilatti
- Morfología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, CONICET, FBCB, Santa Fe, Argentina
- Fellow of Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argentina (CONICET)
| | - SebastiÁn E. Muchut
- Morfología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, CONICET, FBCB, Santa Fe, Argentina
- Fellow of Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argentina (CONICET)
| | - Nora G. Uberti-Manassero
- Member of Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argentina (CONICET)
- Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, CONICET, FBCB, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Abelardo C. Vegetti
- Morfología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, CONICET, FBCB, Santa Fe, Argentina
- Member of Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argentina (CONICET)
| | - Renata Reinheimer
- Member of Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argentina (CONICET)
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, CONICET, FBCB, Santa Fe, Argentina
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Suzuki TK, Tomita S, Sezutsu H. Gradual and contingent evolutionary emergence of leaf mimicry in butterfly wing patterns. BMC Evol Biol 2014; 14:229. [PMID: 25421067 PMCID: PMC4261531 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-014-0229-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Special resemblance of animals to natural objects such as leaves provides a representative example of evolutionary adaptation. The existence of such sophisticated features challenges our understanding of how complex adaptive phenotypes evolved. Leaf mimicry typically consists of several pattern elements, the spatial arrangement of which generates the leaf venation-like appearance. However, the process by which leaf patterns evolved remains unclear. Results In this study we show the evolutionary origin and process for the leaf pattern in Kallima (Nymphalidae) butterflies. Using comparative morphological analyses, we reveal that the wing patterns of Kallima and 45 closely related species share the same ground plan, suggesting that the pattern elements of leaf mimicry have been inherited across species with lineage-specific changes of their character states. On the basis of these analyses, phylogenetic comparative methods estimated past states of the pattern elements and enabled reconstruction of the wing patterns of the most recent common ancestor. This analysis shows that the leaf pattern has evolved through several intermediate patterns. Further, we use Bayesian statistical methods to estimate the temporal order of character-state changes in the pattern elements by which leaf mimesis evolved, and show that the pattern elements changed their spatial arrangement (e.g., from a curved line to a straight line) in a stepwise manner and finally establish a close resemblance to a leaf venation-like appearance. Conclusions Our study provides the first evidence for stepwise and contingent evolution of leaf mimicry. Leaf mimicry patterns evolved in a gradual, rather than a sudden, manner from a non-mimetic ancestor. Through a lineage of Kallima butterflies, the leaf patterns evolutionarily originated through temporal accumulation of orchestrated changes in multiple pattern elements. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-014-0229-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takao K Suzuki
- Transgenic Silkworm Research Unit, Genetically Modified Organism Research Center, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, 1-2 Oowashi, 305-8634, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
| | - Shuichiro Tomita
- Transgenic Silkworm Research Unit, Genetically Modified Organism Research Center, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, 1-2 Oowashi, 305-8634, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
| | - Hideki Sezutsu
- Transgenic Silkworm Research Unit, Genetically Modified Organism Research Center, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, 1-2 Oowashi, 305-8634, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
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Kirchoff BK, Claßen-Bockhoff R. Inflorescences: concepts, function, development and evolution. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2013; 112:1471-6. [PMID: 24383103 PMCID: PMC3828949 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mct267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflorescences are complex structures with many functions. At anthesis they present the flowers in ways that allow for the transfer of pollen and optimization of the plant's reproductive success. During flower and fruit development they provide nutrients to the developing flowers and fruits. At fruit maturity they support the fruits prior to dispersal, and facilitate effective fruit and seed dispersal. From a structural point of view, inflorescences have played important roles in systematic and phylogenetic studies. As functional units they facilitate reproduction, and are largely shaped by natural selection. SCOPE The papers in this Special Issue bridge the gap between structural and functional approaches to inflorescence evolution. They include a literature review of inflorescence function, an experimental study of inflorescences as essential contributors to the display of flowers, and two papers that present new methods and concepts for understanding inflorescence diversity and for dealing with terminological problems. The transient model of inflorescence development is evaluated in an ontogenetic study, and partially supported. Four papers present morphological and ontogenetic studies of inflorescence development in monophyletic groups, and two of these evaluate the usefulness of Hofmeister's Rule and inhibitory fields to predict inflorescence structure. In the final two papers, Bayesian and Monte-Carlo methods are used to elucidate inflorescence evolution in the Panicoid grasses, and a candidate gene approach is used in an attempt to understand the evolutionary genetics of inflorescence evolution in the genus Cornus (Cornaceae). Taken as a whole, the papers in this issue provide a glimpse of contemporary approaches to the study of the structure, development, and evolution of inflorescences, and suggest fruitful new directions for research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce K. Kirchoff
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402-6170, USA
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Kellogg EA, Camara PEAS, Rudall PJ, Ladd P, Malcomber ST, Whipple CJ, Doust AN. Early inflorescence development in the grasses (Poaceae). FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 4:250. [PMID: 23898335 PMCID: PMC3721031 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2013] [Accepted: 06/20/2013] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
The shoot apical meristem of grasses produces the primary branches of the inflorescence, controlling inflorescence architecture and hence seed production. Whereas leaves are produced in a distichous pattern, with the primordia separated from each other by an angle of 180°, inflorescence branches are produced in a spiral in most species. The morphology and developmental genetics of the shift in phyllotaxis have been studied extensively in maize and rice. However, in wheat, Brachypodium, and oats, all in the grass subfamily Pooideae, the change in phyllotaxis does not occur; primary inflorescence branches are produced distichously. It is unknown whether the distichous inflorescence originated at the base of Pooideae, or whether it appeared several times independently. In this study, we show that Brachyelytrum, the genus sister to all other Pooideae has spiral phyllotaxis in the inflorescence, but that in the remaining 3000+ species of Pooideae, the phyllotaxis is two-ranked. These two-ranked inflorescences are not perfectly symmetrical, and have a clear "front" and "back;" this developmental axis has never been described in the literature and it is unclear what establishes its polarity. Strictly distichous inflorescences appear somewhat later in the evolution of the subfamily. Two-ranked inflorescences also appear in a few grass outgroups and sporadically elsewhere in the family, but unlike in Pooideae do not generally correlate with a major radiation of species. After production of branches, the inflorescence meristem may be converted to a spikelet meristem or may simply abort; this developmental decision appears to be independent of the branching pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A. Kellogg
- Department of Biology, University of Missouri-St. LouisSt. Louis, MO, USA
- *Correspondence: Elizabeth A. Kellogg, Department of Biology, University of Missouri-St. Louis, One University Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63121, USA e-mail:
| | | | | | - Philip Ladd
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch UniversityPerth, WA, Australia
| | - Simon T. Malcomber
- Department of Biology, California State University-Long BeachLong Beach, CA, USA
| | | | - Andrew N. Doust
- Department of Botany, Oklahoma State UniversityStillwater, OK, USA
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