Molecular mechanisms regulating the catabolic and electrochemical activities of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1

Evolving Synergy Between Synthetic and Biotic Elements in Conjugated Polyelectrolyte/Bacteria Composite Improves Charge Transport and Mechanical Properties

gLiving materials can achieve unprecedented function by combining synthetic materials with the wide range of cellular functions. Of interest are situations where the critical properties of individual abiotic and biotic elements improve via their combination. For example, integrating electroactive bacteria into conjugated polyelectrolyte (CPE) hydrogels increases biocurrent production. One observes more efficient electrical charge transport within the CPE matrix in the presence of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 and more current per cell is extracted, compared to traditional biofilms. Here, the origin of these synergistic effects are examined. Transcriptomics reveals that genes in S. oneidensis MR-1 related to bacteriophages and energy metabolism are upregulated in the composite material. Fluorescent staining and rheological measurements before and after enzymatic treatment identified the importance of extracellular biomaterials in increasing matrix cohesion. The synergy between CPE and S. oneidensis MR-1 thus arises from initially unanticipated changes in matrix composition and bacteria adaption within the synthetic environment.

Liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry describes post-translational modification of Shewanella outer membrane proteins

Electrogenic bacteria deliver excess respiratory electrons to externally located metal oxide particles and electrodes. The biochemical basis for this process is arguably best understood for species of Shewanella where the integral membrane complex termed MtrCAB is key to electron transfer across the bacterial outer membranes. A crystal structure was recently resolved for MtrCAB from S. baltica OS185. However, X-ray diffraction did not resolve the N-terminal residues so that the lipidation status of proteins in the mature complex was poorly described. Here we report liquid chromatography mass spectrometry revealing the intact mass values for all three proteins in the MtrCAB complexes purified from Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 and S. baltica OS185. The masses of MtrA and MtrB are consistent with both proteins being processed by Signal Peptidase I and covalent attachment of ten c-type hemes to MtrA. The mass of MtrC is most reasonably interpreted as arising from protein processed by Signal Peptidase II to produce a diacylated lipoprotein containing ten c-type hemes. Our two-step protocol for liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry used a reverse phase column to achieve on-column detergent removal prior to gradient protein resolution and elution. We envisage the method will be capable of simultaneously resolving the intact mass values for multiple proteins in other membrane protein complexes.

Enhanced Biodegradation of Methyl Orange Through Immobilization of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 by Polyvinyl Alcohol and Sodium Alginate

Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 has great potential for use in remediating azo dye pollution. Here, a new high-efficiency biodegradation method was developed utilizing S. oneidensis MR-1 immobilized by polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and sodium alginate (SA). After determining the optimal immobilization conditions, the effects of various environmental factors on methyl orange (MO) degradation were analyzed. The biodegradation activity of the immobilized pellets was evaluated by analyzing the MO removal efficiency, and characterization was performed using scanning electron microscopy. The MO adsorption kinetics can be described using pseudo-second-order kinetics. Compared with free bacteria, the MO degradation rate of the immobilized S. oneidensis MR-1 increased from 41% to 92.6% after 21 days, suggesting that the immobilized bacteria performed substantially better and had more stable removal rates. These factors indicate the superiority of bacteria entrapment in addition to its easy application. This study demonstrates that the application of immobilized S. oneidensis MR-1 entrapped by PVA-SA can be used to establish a reactor with stable and high MO removal rates.

Electrogenetic control of gene expression in Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 using Arc-dependent transcriptional promoters

Electrochemically active bacteria (EAB) are capable of electrically interacting with electrodes, enabling their application in bioelectrochemical systems (BESs). As the performance of BES is related to the metabolic activities of EAB, the development of methods to control their metabolic activities is important to facilitate BES applications. A recent study found that the EAB Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 uses the Arc system to regulate the expression of catabolic genes in response to electrode potentials, suggesting that a methodology for electrical control of gene expression in EAB, referred to as electrogenetics, can be developed by using electrode potential-responsive, Arc-dependent transcriptional promoters. Here, we explored Arc-dependent promoters in the genomes of S. oneidensis MR-1 and Escherichia coli to identify electrode potential-responsive promoters that are differentially activated in MR-1 cells exposed to high- and low-potential electrodes. LacZ reporter assays using electrode-associated cells of MR-1 derivatives revealed that the activities of promoters located upstream of the E. coli feo gene (P_feo) and the MR-1 nqrA2 (SO_0902) gene (P_nqr2) were significantly increased when S. oneidensis cells were exposed to electrodes poised at +0.7 V and -0.4 V (versus the standard hydrogen electrode), respectively. Additionally, we developed a microscopic system for in situ monitoring of promoter activity in electrode-associated cells and found that P_nqr2 activity was persistently induced in MR-1 cells associated with an electrode poised at -0.4 V. Our results indicate that these electrode potential-responsive promoters enable efficient regulation of gene expression in EAB, providing a molecular basis for the development of electrogenetics.

A common inducer molecule enhances sugar utilization by Shewanella oneidensis MR-1

Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 is an electroactive bacterium that is a promising host for bioelectrochemical technologies, which makes it a common target for genetic engineering, including gene deletions and expression of heterologous pathways. Expression of heterologous genes and gene knockdown via CRISPRi in S. oneidensis are both frequently induced by β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG), a commonly used inducer molecule across many model organisms. Here, we report and characterize an unexpected phenotype; IPTG enhances the growth of wild-type S. oneidensis MR-1 on the sugar substrate N-acetylglucosamine (NAG). IPTG improves the carrying capacity of S. oneidensis growing on NAG while the growth rate remains similar to cultures without the inducer. Extracellular acetate accumulates faster and to a higher concentration in cultures without IPTG than those with it. IPTG appears to improve acetate metabolism, which combats the negative effect that acetate accumulation has on the growth of S. oneidensis with NAG. We recommend using extensive experimental controls and careful data interpretation when using both NAG and IPTG in S. oneidensis cultures.

A New Electron Shuttling Pathway Mediated by Lipophilic Phenoxazine via the Interaction with Periplasmic and Inner Membrane Proteins of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1

Although it has been established that electron mediators substantially promote extracellular electron transfer (EET), electron shuttling pathways are not fully understood. Here, a new electron shuttling pathway was found in the EET process by Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 with resazurin, a lipophilic electron mediator. With resazurin, the genes encoding outer-membrane cytochromes (mtrCBA and omcA) were downregulated. Although cytochrome deletion substantially reduced biocurrent generation to 1-12% of that of wild-type (WT) cells, the presence of resazurin restored biocurrent generation to 168 μA·cm^-2 (ΔmtrA/omcA/mtrC), nearly equivalent to that of WT cells (194 μA·cm^-2), indicating that resazurin-mediated electron transfer was not dependent on the Mtr pathway. Biocurrent generation by resazurin was much lower in ΔcymA and ΔmtrA/omcA/mtrC/fccA/cctA mutants (4 and 6 μA·cm^-2) than in WT cells, indicating a key role of FccA, CctA, and CymA in this process. The effectiveness of resazurin in EET of Mtr cytochrome mutants is also supported by cyclic voltammetry, resazurin reduction kinetics, and in situ c-type cytochrome spectroscopy results. The findings demonstrated that low molecular weight, lipophilic electron acceptors, such as phenoxazine and phenazine, may facilitate electron transfer directly from periplasmic and inner membrane proteins, thus providing new insight into the roles of exogenous electron mediators in electron shuttling in natural and engineered biogeochemical systems.

Versatile mechanisms and enhanced strategies of pollutants removal mediated by Shewanella oneidensis: A review

The removal of environmental pollutants is important for a sustainable ecosystem and human health. Shewanella oneidensis (S. oneidensis) has diverse electron transfer pathways and can use a variety of contaminants as electron acceptors or electron donors. This paper reviews S. oneidensis's function in removing environmental pollutants, including heavy metals, inorganic non-metallic ions (INMIs), and toxic organic pollutants. S. oneidensis can mineralize o-xylene (OX), phenanthrene (PHE), and pyridine (Py) as electron donors, and also reduce azo dyes, nitro aromatic compounds (NACs), heavy metals, and iodate by extracellular electron transfer (EET). For azo dyes, NACs, Cr(VI), nitrite, nitrate, thiosulfate, and sulfite that can cross the membrane, S. oneidensis transfers electrons to intracellular reductases to catalyze their reduction. However, most organic pollutants cannot be directly degraded by S. oneidensis, but S. oneidensis can remove these pollutants by self-synthesizing catalysts or photocatalysts, constructing bio-photocatalytic systems, driving Fenton reactions, forming microbial consortia, and genetic engineering. However, the industrial-scale application of S. oneidensis is insufficient. Future research on the metabolism of S. oneidensis and interfacial reactions with other materials needs to be deepened, and large-scale reactors should be developed that can be used for practical engineering applications.