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Pokharel P, Sippel M, Vilcinskas A, Petschenka G. Defense of Milkweed Bugs (Heteroptera: Lygaeinae) against Predatory Lacewing Larvae Depends on Structural Differences of Sequestered Cardenolides. INSECTS 2020; 11:E485. [PMID: 32752003 PMCID: PMC7469174 DOI: 10.3390/insects11080485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Predators and parasitoids regulate insect populations and select defense mechanisms such as the sequestration of plant toxins. Sequestration is common among herbivorous insects, yet how the structural variation of plant toxins affects defenses against predators remains largely unknown. The palearctic milkweed bug Lygaeus equestris (Heteroptera: Lygaeinae) was recently shown to sequester cardenolides from Adonis vernalis (Ranunculaceae), while its relative Horvathiolus superbus also obtains cardenolides but from Digitalis purpurea (Plantaginaceae). Remarkably, toxin sequestration protects both species against insectivorous birds, but only H. superbus gains protection against predatory lacewing larvae. Here, we used a full factorial design to test whether this difference was mediated by the differences in plant chemistry or by the insect species. We raised both species of milkweed bugs on seeds from both species of host plants and carried out predation assays using the larvae of the lacewing Chrysoperla carnea. In addition, we analyzed the toxins sequestered by the bugs via liquid chromatography (HPLC). We found that both insect species gained protection by sequestering cardenolides from D. purpurea but not from A. vernalis. Since the total amount of toxins stored was not different between the plant species in H. superbus and even lower in L. equestris from D. purpurea compared to A. vernalis, the effect is most likely mediated by structural differences of the sequestered toxins. Our findings indicate that predator-prey interactions are highly context-specific and that the host plant choice can affect the levels of protection to various predator types based on structural differences within the same class of chemical compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prayan Pokharel
- Institute of Phytomedicine, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany;
| | - Marlon Sippel
- Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (M.S.); (A.V.)
| | - Andreas Vilcinskas
- Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (M.S.); (A.V.)
| | - Georg Petschenka
- Institute of Phytomedicine, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany;
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Chouteau M, Dezeure J, Sherratt TN, Llaurens V, Joron M. Similar predator aversion for natural prey with diverse toxicity levels. Anim Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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3
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Boevé JL, Nyman T, Shinohara A, Schmidt S. Endogenous toxins and the coupling of gregariousness to conspicuousness in Argidae and Pergidae sawflies. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17636. [PMID: 30518939 PMCID: PMC6281571 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35925-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytophagous insects tend to be either cryptic and solitary, or brightly colored and gregarious, as a defense against vertebrate predators. Here, we tested whether potent defensive chemicals produced de novo by larvae of Argidae and Pergidae sawflies have influenced the evolutionary relationship between larval appearance and levels of gregariousness. Phylogeny-based correlation analyses indicated only a weak trend for solitary species to be cryptic, and for gregarious ones to be conspicuous. Numerous Argidae were cryptic-solitary or conspicuous-gregarious, whereas most Pergidae were conspicuous-gregarious. Both families also included not truly gregarious but aggregated species, i.e. with individuals more evenly distributed on the host plant. By considering two specific morphological traits, predominant body coloration and contrasting spots on body, each one was (weakly) associated with appearance but none with gregariousness, which reflects the functional relevance of appearance as a whole. Furthermore, Argidae can display alternate appearances during successive larval instars. Finally, an independent contrasts test showed no obvious correlation between two major toxic peptides. Our results point towards diversely combined patterns of linked ecological traits in these insects. By assuming that warning coloration is more warranted against vertebrate than invertebrate predators, we suggest that the occurrence itself of toxins allowed this diversity via differing predator guilds and environmental factors, to which these insects were confronted during evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Luc Boevé
- OD Taxonomy and Phylogeny, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Rue Vautier 29, B-1000, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Tommi Nyman
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101, Joensuu, Finland
- Department of Ecosystems in the Barents Region, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Svanhovd Research Station, NO-9925, Svanvik, Norway
| | - Akihiko Shinohara
- Department of Zoology, National Museum of Nature and Science, 4-1-1 Amakubo, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, 305-0005, Japan
| | - Stefan Schmidt
- SNSB - Zoologische Staatssammlung München, Münchhausenstr. 21, 81247, Munich, Germany
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Rodriguez J, Jones TH, Sierwald P, Marek PE, Shear WA, Brewer MS, Kocot KM, Bond JE. Step-wise evolution of complex chemical defenses in millipedes: a phylogenomic approach. Sci Rep 2018; 8:3209. [PMID: 29453332 PMCID: PMC5816663 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19996-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
With fossil representatives from the Silurian capable of respiring atmospheric oxygen, millipedes are among the oldest terrestrial animals, and likely the first to acquire diverse and complex chemical defenses against predators. Exploring the origin of complex adaptive traits is critical for understanding the evolution of Earth's biological complexity, and chemical defense evolution serves as an ideal study system. The classic explanation for the evolution of complexity is by gradual increase from simple to complex, passing through intermediate "stepping stone" states. Here we present the first phylogenetic-based study of the evolution of complex chemical defenses in millipedes by generating the largest genomic-based phylogenetic dataset ever assembled for the group. Our phylogenomic results demonstrate that chemical complexity shows a clear pattern of escalation through time. New pathways are added in a stepwise pattern, leading to greater chemical complexity, independently in a number of derived lineages. This complexity gradually increased through time, leading to the advent of three distantly related chemically complex evolutionary lineages, each uniquely characteristic of each of the respective millipede groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juanita Rodriguez
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
- CSIRO, Australian National Insect Collection, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Tappey H Jones
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, VA, 24450, USA
| | - Petra Sierwald
- Zoology Department, The Field Museum, Chicago, IL, 60605, USA
| | - Paul E Marek
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - William A Shear
- Biology Department, Hampden-Sydney College, Farmville, VA, 23943, USA
| | - Michael S Brewer
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27858, USA
| | - Kevin M Kocot
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA
| | - Jason E Bond
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA.
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Rojas B, Burdfield-Steel E, Pakkanen H, Suisto K, Maczka M, Schulz S, Mappes J. How to fight multiple enemies: target-specific chemical defences in an aposematic moth. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 284:20171424. [PMID: 28954910 PMCID: PMC5627206 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.1424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals have evolved different defensive strategies to survive predation, among which chemical defences are particularly widespread and diverse. Here we investigate the function of chemical defence diversity, hypothesizing that such diversity has evolved as a response to multiple enemies. The aposematic wood tiger moth (Arctia plantaginis) displays conspicuous hindwing coloration and secretes distinct defensive fluids from its thoracic glands and abdomen. We presented the two defensive fluids from laboratory-reared moths to two biologically relevant predators, birds and ants, and measured their reaction in controlled bioassays (no information on colour was provided). We found that defensive fluids are target-specific: thoracic fluids, and particularly 2-sec-butyl-3-methoxypyrazine, which they contain, deterred birds, but caused no aversive response in ants. By contrast, abdominal fluids were particularly deterrent to ants, while birds did not find them repellent. Our study, to our knowledge, is the first to show evidence of a single species producing separate chemical defences targeted to different predator types, highlighting the importance of taking into account complex predator communities in studies on the evolution of prey defence diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bibiana Rojas
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, PO Box 35, Jyväskylä 40001, Finland
| | - Emily Burdfield-Steel
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, PO Box 35, Jyväskylä 40001, Finland
| | - Hannu Pakkanen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Jyväskylä, Survontie 9, Jyväskylä 40500, Finland
| | - Kaisa Suisto
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, PO Box 35, Jyväskylä 40001, Finland
| | - Michael Maczka
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Hagenring 30, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Stefan Schulz
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Hagenring 30, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, PO Box 35, Jyväskylä 40001, Finland
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Wheeler CA, Millar JG, Cardé RT. Multimodal signal interactions in the ladybeetle, Hippodamia convergens, aposematic system. CHEMOECOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s00049-014-0181-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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7
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Ecological pharmacodynamics: prey toxin evolution depends on the physiological characteristics of predators. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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8
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Gasch T, Vilcinskas A. The chemical defense in larvae of the earwig Forficula auricularia. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 67:1-8. [PMID: 24879968 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2014.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2014] [Revised: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Larvae of the European earwig, Forficula auricularia, possess a paired pygidial gland with yet unknown content and function. We used gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to analyze the larval secretions revealing the presence of 2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone, 2-ethyl-1,4-benzoquinone, n-tridecane and n-pentadecane. Based on our recent discovery that the morphologically-distinct abdominal glands of adult earwigs produce secretions with antibacterial, antifungal and nematicidal activity, we propose that the pygidial glands mediate chemical defenses in the larvae. We next considered whether the defensive functions of larval secretions include repellent activity against sympatric predators. Therefore, we tested the effects of larval secretions on foraging workers of the ant species Myrmica rubra, the actively hunting spiders Anyphaena accentuata and Philodromus aureolus and the net-hunting spider Pholcus phalangioides in laboratory feeding assays. The secretion is released in response to ant attacks, and discourages feeding in M. rubra, however, it does not discourage feeding in spiders. Our results suggest that earwigs use different glands during ontogenesis to produce secretions that play roles in chemical defense against predators such as ants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Gasch
- Institute of Phytopathology and Applied Zoology, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Andreas Vilcinskas
- Institute of Phytopathology and Applied Zoology, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany.
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Gasch T, Schott M, Wehrenfennig C, Düring RA, Vilcinskas A. Multifunctional weaponry: the chemical defenses of earwigs. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 59:1186-1193. [PMID: 24090659 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2013.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2013] [Revised: 09/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Earwigs protect themselves against predators using pincer-like cerci and/or malodorous exudates secreted from abdominal glands. Little is known about the chemistry of these secretions and their potential functions. However, because earwigs live in aggregations and overwinter in soil, they are exposed to high microbial loads throughout their lifecycle, and we therefore hypothesized that the secretions are used not only to deter predators but also to combat pathogens and parasites in their environment. We analyzed the defensive secretions of the European earwig Forficula auricularia, the short-winged earwig Apterygida media and the woodland earwig Chelidurella guentheri by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The secretions of all three species contained 2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone and 2-ethyl-1,4-benzoquinone, whereas A. media also produced 2,3-dimethyl-1,4-benzoquinone and 2-ethyl-3-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone. The latter has not been identified in the exudates of insects before. The composition and/or quantity of these components were species-specific and partially sex-specific. All secretions showed antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as two entomopathogenic fungi. Furthermore, the secretion of F. auricularia displayed nematicidal activity against Caenorhabditis elegans. Our data support the hypothesis that earwig secretions are multifunctional, serving both to deter predators and sanitize the microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Gasch
- Institute of Phytopathology and Applied Zoology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
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Boevé JL, Blank SM, Meijer G, Nyman T. Invertebrate and avian predators as drivers of chemical defensive strategies in tenthredinid sawflies. BMC Evol Biol 2013; 13:198. [PMID: 24041372 PMCID: PMC3848831 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-13-198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many insects are chemically defended against predatory vertebrates and invertebrates. Nevertheless, our understanding of the evolution and diversity of insect defenses remains limited, since most studies have focused on visual signaling of defenses against birds, thereby implicitly underestimating the impact of insectivorous insects. In the larvae of sawflies in the family Tenthredinidae (Hymenoptera), which feed on various plants and show diverse lifestyles, two distinct defensive strategies are found: easy bleeding of deterrent hemolymph, and emission of volatiles by ventral glands. Here, we used phylogenetic information to identify phylogenetic correlations among various ecological and defensive traits in order to estimate the relative importance of avian versus invertebrate predation. RESULTS The mapping of 12 ecological and defensive traits on phylogenetic trees inferred from DNA sequences reveals the discrete distribution of easy bleeding that occurs, among others, in the genus Athalia and the tribe Phymatocerini. By contrast, occurrence of ventral glands is restricted to the monophyletic subfamily Nematinae, which are never easy bleeders. Both strategies are especially effective towards insectivorous insects such as ants, while only Nematinae species are frequently brightly colored and truly gregarious. Among ten tests of phylogenetic correlation between traits, only a few are significant. None of these involves morphological traits enhancing visual signals, but easy bleeding is associated with the absence of defensive body movements and with toxins occurring in the host plant. Easy bleeding functions through a combination of attributes, which is corroborated by an independent contrasts test indicating a statistically significant negative correlation between species-level integument mechanical resistance and hemolymph feeding deterrence against ants. CONCLUSIONS Our analyses evidence a repeated occurrence of easy bleeding, and no phylogenetic correlation including specific visual signals is significant. We conclude that the evolution of chemically-based defenses in tenthredinids may have been driven by invertebrate as much as by avian predation. The clear-cut visual signaling often encountered in the Nematinae would be linked to differential trends of habitat use by prey and predators. Further studies on (prey) insect groups should include visual signals and other traits, as well as several groups of natural enemies, to better interpret their relative significance and to refine our understanding of insect chemical defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Luc Boevé
- Department of Entomology, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Rue Vautier 29, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium.
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11
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Carroll J, Sherratt TN. A direct comparison of the effectiveness of two anti-predator strategies under field conditions. J Zool (1987) 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. Carroll
- Department of Biology; Carleton University; Ottawa ON Canada
| | - T. N. Sherratt
- Department of Biology; Carleton University; Ottawa ON Canada
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12
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Wheeler CA, Cardé RT. Defensive allomones function as aggregation pheromones in diapausing Ladybird Beetles, Hippodamia convergens. J Chem Ecol 2013; 39:723-32. [PMID: 23657436 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-013-0293-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Revised: 03/29/2013] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Identification of the stimuli responsible for the formation of an aggregation can be used to distinguish between social and non-social aggregations and help in the process of identifying the adaptive benefits of the gregarious behavior. The convergent ladybird beetle, Hippodamia convergens, forms dense aggregations during winter diapause. The mechanisms of conspecific attraction and hibernacula site selection of H. convergens are not well understood. In laboratory and field bioassays, we evaluated the role of three defensive compounds in the formation of H. convergens aggregations. Diapausing H. convergens aggregated within the section of an arena exposed to alkylmethoxypyrazines. 2-Isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine (IBMP) caused the strongest aggregative effect. Beetles also aggregated to some doses of 2-sec-butyl-3-methoxypyrazine, but appeared to be repelled at higher doses. A third constituent, 2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine, generally had little effect on the distribution of beetles, although the highest dose tested was repellent. Beetles also aggregated to a blend of these alkylmethoxypyrazines at their natural ratio. During fall migration to overwintering sites, more beetles aggregated in artificial hibernacula baited with IBMP, confirming its function as an aggregation pheromone. These three pyrazines also function as warning odors that, in conjunction with other aposematic displays (contrasting red and black coloration, gregarious behavior, reflex bleeding), contribute to the multi-modal, anti-predatory defense of coccinellid beetles and some other arthropods. Confirmation of the role of some alkylmethoxypyrazines in coccinellid aggregations suggests that these defensive allomones have been co-opted for intraspecific communication.
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Abstract
Many predators quickly learn to avoid attacking aposematic prey. If the prey vary in toxicity, the predators may alternatively learn to capture and taste-sample prey carefully before ingesting or rejecting them (go-slow behaviour). An increase in prey toxicity is generally thought to decrease predation on prey populations. However, while prey with a higher toxin load are more harmful to ingest, they may also be easier to recognize and reject owing to greater distastefulness, which can facilitate a taste-sampling foraging strategy. Here, the classic diet model is used to study the separate effects of taste and toxicity on predator preferences. The taste-sampling process is modelled using signal detection theory. The model is applicable to automimicry and batesian mimicry. It shows that when the defensive toxin is sufficiently distasteful, a mimicry complex may be less profitable to the predator and better protected against predation if the models are moderately toxic than if they are highly toxic. Moreover, taste mimicry can reduce the profitability of the mimicry complex and increase protection against predation. The results are discussed in relation to the selection pressures acting on prey defences and the evolution of mimicry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Øistein Haugsten Holen
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biology, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
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Llewelyn J, Bell K, Schwarzkopf L, Alford RA, Shine R. Ontogenetic shifts in a prey’s chemical defences influence feeding responses of a snake predator. Oecologia 2012; 169:965-73. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-012-2268-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2010] [Accepted: 01/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Behavioral and antennal electrophysiological responses of a predator ant to the pygidial gland secretions of two species of Neotropical dung roller beetles. CHEMOECOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s00049-011-0095-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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16
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Xie W, Wang S, Wu Q, Feng Y, Pan H, Jiao X, Zhou L, Yang X, Fu W, Teng H, Xu B, Zhang Y. Induction effects of host plants on insecticide susceptibility and detoxification enzymes of Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2011; 67:87-93. [PMID: 21162148 DOI: 10.1002/ps.2037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2010] [Revised: 07/09/2010] [Accepted: 07/09/2010] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The polyphagous B-biotype Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) has developed a high resistance to commonly used insecticides in China. To illustrate the induced changes by host plant, bioassay and biochemical research on five different host populations were investigated. RESULTS Except for bifenthrin, all tested insecticides showed lower toxicity to the B. tabaci poinsettia population compared with other host populations. Moreover, four insecticides, the exceptions being abamectin and fipronil, showed highest toxicity towards the tomato population. The LC(50) values of the poinsettia population, particularly towards acetamiprid, were 14.8-, 10.3- and 7.29-fold higher than those of tomato, cucumber and cabbage respectively. The CarE activities of B. tabaci cabbage and cucumber populations were all significantly higher than those of poinsettia, cotton and tomato populations. The ratio of the cabbage population was 1.97-, 1.79- and 1.30-fold higher than that of poinsettia, cotton and tomato respectively. The frequency profiles for this activity also have obvious differences. The GST and P450 activities of the cucumber population were the lowest in the five host populations. CONCLUSION Long-term induction of host plants for B-biotype B. tabaci could influence their susceptibilities to several insecticides. Rational selection and usage of insecticides for particular hosts will be helpful for resistance management and control of this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Xie
- Department of Plant Protection, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, PR China
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17
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Halpin CG, Rowe C. Taste-rejection behaviour by predators can promote variability in prey defences. Biol Lett 2010; 6:617-9. [PMID: 20335201 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2010.0153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution and maintenance of toxicity in a prey population is a challenge to evolutionary biologists if the investment in toxin does not benefit the individual. Recent experiments suggest that taste-rejection behaviour enables predators to selectively ingest less toxic individuals, which could stabilize investment in defences. However, we currently do not know if taste rejection of defended prey is accurate across different contexts, and that prey always benefit according to their investment. Using avian predators, we show that the rejection probability does not solely depend on the investment in defence by an individual, but also on the investment by other individuals in the same population. Therefore, taste rejection by predators could lead to destabilization in the investment in defences, and allow variability in prey defences to exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina G Halpin
- Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Henry Wellcome Building, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK.
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18
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Higginson AD, Ruxton GD. Dynamic models allowing for flexibility in complex life histories accurately predict timing of metamorphosis and antipredator strategies of prey. Funct Ecol 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01598.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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19
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Halpin CG, Skelhorn J, Rowe C. Being conspicuous and defended: selective benefits for the individual. Behav Ecol 2008. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arn069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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