1
|
Polo-Cavia N, Arribas R, Caballero-Díaz C, Baltanás Á, Gomez-Mestre I. Widespread learned predator recognition to an alien predator across populations in an amphibian species. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14599. [PMID: 37669978 PMCID: PMC10480198 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41624-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alien predators are a major cause of decline and extinction of species worldwide, since native organisms are rarely equipped with specific antipredatory strategies to cope with them. However, phenotypic plasticity and learned predator recognition may help prey populations to survive novel predators. Here we examine geographical variation in the learning ability of larval spadefoot toads (Pelobates cultripes) to recognize invasive predatory crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). We compare the learning-mediated behavioural responses of tadpoles from six populations across two regions in Spain (central and southern), with different histories of exposure to the presence of the invasive species. Two of the populations showed innate recognition of chemical cues from the invasive crayfish, whereas three of them learned to recognize such cues as a threat after conditioning with conspecific alarm cues. Learning abilities did not differ among southern populations, but they did among central populations. We assessed patterns of genetic variation within and among these two regions through microsatellite markers and found low genetic divergence among the southern populations but greater differentiation among the central ones. We hypothesize that similar responses to the invasive crayfish in southern populations may have arisen from a combination of extended historical exposure to this introduced predator (~ 50 y) and higher levels of gene flow, as they inhabit a highly interconnected pond network. In contrast, populations from central Spain show lower connectivity, have been exposed to the invasive crayfish for a shorter period of time, and are more divergent in their plastic responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Polo-Cavia
- Department of Biology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Rosa Arribas
- Department of Biology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
- Monitoring Team on Natural Processes ICTS-RBD, Doñana Biological Station, CSIC, E-41092, Seville, Spain
| | - Carlos Caballero-Díaz
- Department of Biology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ángel Baltanás
- Department of Ecology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ivan Gomez-Mestre
- Ecology, Evolution and Development Group, Doñana Biological Station, CSIC, E-41092, Seville, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Crane AL, Achtymichuk GH, Rivera-Hernández IAE, Pregola AA, Thapa H, Ferrari MCO. Uncertainty about old information results in differential predator memory in tadpoles. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230746. [PMID: 37161339 PMCID: PMC10170214 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
As information ages, it may become less accurate, resulting in increased uncertainty for decision makers. For example, chemical alarm cues (AC) are a source of public information about a nearby predator attack, and these cues can become spatially inaccurate through time. These cues can also degrade quickly under natural conditions, and cue receivers are sensitive to such degradation. Although numerous studies have documented predator-recognition learning from fresh AC, no studies have explored learning from aged AC and whether the uncertainty associated with this older information contributes to shortening the retention of learned responses (i.e. the 'memory window'). Here, we found that wood frog tadpoles, Lithobates sylvaticus, learned to recognize a novel odour as a predator when paired with AC aged under natural conditions for up to 1 h. However, only tadpoles conditioned with fresh AC were found to retain this learned response when tested 9 days after conditioning. These results support the hypothesis that the memory window is shortened by the uncertainty associated with older information, preventing the long-term costs of a learned association that was based on potentially outdated information.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adam L Crane
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Gabrielle H Achtymichuk
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | | | - Alexyz A Pregola
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Himal Thapa
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Maud C O Ferrari
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Smart sharks: a review of chondrichthyan cognition. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:175-188. [PMID: 36394656 PMCID: PMC9877065 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01708-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
450 million years of evolution have given chondrichthyans (sharks, rays and allies) ample time to adapt perfectly to their respective everyday life challenges and cognitive abilities have played an important part in that process. The diversity of niches that sharks and rays occupy corresponds to matching diversity in brains and behaviour, but we have only scratched the surface in terms of investigating cognition in this important group of animals. The handful of species that have been cognitively assessed in some detail over the last decade have provided enough data to safely conclude that sharks and rays are cognitively on par with most other vertebrates, including mammals and birds. Experiments in the lab as well as in the wild pose their own unique challenges, mainly due to the handling and maintenance of these animals as well as controlling environmental conditions and elimination of confounding factors. Nonetheless, significant advancements have been obtained in the fields of spatial and social cognition, discrimination learning, memory retention as well as several others. Most studies have focused on behaviour and the underlying neural substrates involved in cognitive information processing are still largely unknown. Our understanding of shark cognition has multiple practical benefits for welfare and conservation management but there are obvious gaps in our knowledge. Like most marine animals, sharks and rays face multiple threats. The effects of climate change, pollution and resulting ecosystem changes on the cognitive abilities of sharks and stingrays remain poorly investigated and we can only speculate what the likely impacts might be based on research on bony fishes. Lastly, sharks still suffer from their bad reputation as mindless killers and are heavily targeted by commercial fishing operations for their fins. This public relations issue clouds people's expectations of shark intelligence and is a serious impediment to their conservation. In the light of the fascinating results presented here, it seems obvious that the general perception of sharks and rays as well as their status as sentient, cognitive animals, needs to be urgently revisited.
Collapse
|
4
|
Wisenden BD, Paulson DC, Orr M. Zebrafish embryos hatch early in response to chemical and mechanical indicators of predation risk, resulting in underdeveloped swimming ability of hatchling larvae. Biol Open 2022; 11:285133. [PMID: 36318109 PMCID: PMC9732867 DOI: 10.1242/bio.059229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasticity in hatching time allows embryos to maximize fitness by balancing the benefits and costs of remaining bound within the chorion against the benefits and costs of emerging as a free-swimming larva. Here, in the first experiment, we exposed zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos to either chemical cues from crushed embryos (simulating egg predation) or to blank water control. Embryos exposed to alarm cues hatched sooner, and had shorter body lengths and underdeveloped fins, relative to larvae from the water treatment. Burst swimming speed was significantly slower for larvae that hatched from the alarm cue treatment than for larvae from the water treatment. In a second 2×2 experiment, we exposed zebrafish embryos to either chemical alarm cues from conspecific embryos, mechanical disturbance (magnetic stir bar) to simulate a predator probing the substrate for developing embryos, both chemical and mechanical indicators of risk, or neither (control). We found similar effects in terms of earlier time to hatch at an earlier stage of development and poorer swimming performance of hatchling larvae. In the second experiment, these effects occurred in response to mechanical disturbance with or without the presence of chemical alarm cues. Alarm cues alone produced no effects in the second experiment. Taken together, these data indicate that zebrafish embryos demonstrate a facultative trade-off between risk of predation acting on two stages of their life history.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian D. Wisenden
- Biosciences Department, Minnesota State University Moorhead, Moorhead, MN 56563, USA,Author for correspondence ()
| | - Daniel C. Paulson
- Biosciences Department, Minnesota State University Moorhead, Moorhead, MN 56563, USA
| | - Megan Orr
- Department of Statistics, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Size-dependent fitness trade-offs of foraging in the presence of predators for prey with different growth patterns. THEOR ECOL-NETH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12080-022-00535-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
6
|
Mezrai N, Houdelier C, Bertin A, Calandreau L, Arnould C, Darmaillacq AS, Dickel L, Lumineau S. Impact of natural and artificial prenatal stimulations on the behavioural profile of Japanese quail. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:274521. [PMID: 35213895 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
As the sensory systems of vertebrates develop prenatally, embryos perceive many environmental stimuli that can influence the ontogeny of their behaviour. Whether the nature and intensity of prenatal stimuli affect differently this ontogeny remains to be investigated. In this context, this study aimed to analyse the effects of prenatal auditory stimulations (natural stimulations "NS": predator vocalisations, or artificial stimulations "AS": metallic sounds) on the subsequent behaviour of young Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). For that, behavioural variables recorded during ethological tests evaluating emotional and social reactivity were analysed using a principal component analysis. This analysis revealed significant differences between the behavioural profile of stimulated chicks and that of non-exposed chicks. Indeed, chicks exposed to NS expressed more intense emotional responses in fearful situations, but less neophobia in the presence of a novel environment or object, whereas chicks exposed to AS appeared more sensitive to social isolation. Our original results show that the acoustic environment of embryos can influence the way young birds subsequently interact with their social and physical environment after hatching, and face challenges in changing living conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nawel Mezrai
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Cécilia Houdelier
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Aline Bertin
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, CNRS, UMR 7247, IFCE, Université F. Rabelais, Nouzilly, France
| | - Ludovic Calandreau
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, CNRS, UMR 7247, IFCE, Université F. Rabelais, Nouzilly, France
| | - Cécile Arnould
- INRAE, UMR 85 Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, CNRS, UMR 7247, IFCE, Université F. Rabelais, Nouzilly, France
| | - Anne-Sophie Darmaillacq
- Normandie Univ, Unicaen, CNRS, EthoS, 14000 Caen, France.,Univ Rennes, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Ludovic Dickel
- Normandie Univ, Unicaen, CNRS, EthoS, 14000 Caen, France.,Univ Rennes, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Sophie Lumineau
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Embryonic antipredator defenses and behavioral carryover effects in the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03136-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
|
8
|
Gazzola A, Balestrieri A, Brazzale G, Pellitteri-Rosa D. Effects of conspecific density on tadpole risk assessment and defensive behaviour. BEHAVIOUR 2021. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-bja10114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Prey species assess predation risk by using either direct and indirect cues and both may contribute to a proper evaluation of the actual risk. As postulated by the risk assessment hypothesis, conspecific density may also provide useful information for tuning defensive responses. We tested this hypothesis using a combination of five density levels (1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 individuals) of Italian agile frog Rana latastei tadpoles and three treatments (control, predatory cues of common backswimmer Notonecta glauca and a waterjet of tap water as mechanical disturbance). Tadpole activity decreased in response to all stimuli but, as expected, backswimmer cues induced a stronger and lasting response. However, tadpole activity level did not vary with group size, thus providing no support for the risk assessment hypothesis and confirming that conspecific density might have less consistent effects on short-term behavioural responses than morphological and life history traits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Gazzola
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e dell’Ambiente, Università di Pavia, I-27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Alessandro Balestrieri
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e dell’Ambiente, Università di Pavia, I-27100 Pavia, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Politiche Ambientali, Università di Milano, I-20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Giulia Brazzale
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e dell’Ambiente, Università di Pavia, I-27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Daniele Pellitteri-Rosa
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e dell’Ambiente, Università di Pavia, I-27100 Pavia, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
|
10
|
Seigel AR, DeVriendt IG, Hohenstein SJ, Lueders MB, Shastri A, Wisenden BD. Tone deaf: Association of an auditory stimulus with predation risk by zebrafish Danio rerio does not generalize to another auditory stimulus. Behav Processes 2021; 189:104421. [PMID: 33992740 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Predator recognition by small fishes can be acquired when chemical alarm cues released from damaged skin (by a predator attack) are paired with a novel stimulus, such as the appearance or odor of a predator. Once learned, fish can extend recognition of risk by generalizing to associate risk with additional stimuli that are similar to the conditioned novel stimulus. Here, we trained zebrafish to associate a novel auditory stimulus with predation risk, and then tested to see if they generalize risk to all sound stimuli or whether the conditioned response is limited to the sound frequency of the conditioning stimulus. We found that zebrafish Danio rerio readily associated risk of predation with Tone 1 (285 Hz), as evidenced by reduction in activity, increased time spent near the substratum and increased shelter use, but fish conditioned to fear Tone 1 completely ignored presentation of a second tone of 762 Hz. These data suggest that generalization does not occur as easily for auditory cues as they do for olfactory and visual cues, perhaps due to differences in the properties of sensory biology or the cognitive mechanisms that process information in different sensory modalities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alex R Seigel
- Biosciences Department, Minnesota State University Moorhead, United States
| | | | | | - Mark B Lueders
- Biosciences Department, Minnesota State University Moorhead, United States
| | - Ananda Shastri
- Biosciences Department, Minnesota State University Moorhead, United States
| | - Brian D Wisenden
- Biosciences Department, Minnesota State University Moorhead, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Jung J, Serrano-Rojas SJ, Warkentin KM. Multimodal mechanosensing enables treefrog embryos to escape egg-predators. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb236141. [PMID: 33188064 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.236141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Mechanosensory-cued hatching (MCH) is widespread, diverse and important for survival in many animals. From flatworms and insects to frogs and turtles, embryos use mechanosensory cues and signals to inform hatching timing, yet mechanisms mediating mechanosensing in ovo are largely unknown. The arboreal embryos of red-eyed treefrogs, Agalychnis callidryas, hatch prematurely to escape predation, cued by physical disturbance in snake attacks. When otoconial organs in the developing vestibular system become functional, this response strengthens, but its earlier occurrence indicates another sensor must contribute. Post-hatching, tadpoles use lateral line neuromasts to detect water motion. We ablated neuromast function with gentamicin to assess their role in A. callidryas' hatching response to disturbance. Prior to vestibular function, this nearly eliminated the hatching response to a complex simulated attack cue, egg jiggling, revealing that neuromasts mediate early MCH. Vestibular function onset increased hatching, independent of neuromast function, indicating young embryos use multiple mechanosensory systems. MCH increased developmentally. All older embryos hatched in response to egg jiggling, but neuromast function reduced response latency. In contrast, neuromast ablation had no effect on the timing or level of hatching in motion-only vibration playbacks. It appears only a subset of egg-disturbance cues stimulate neuromasts; thus, embryos in attacked clutches may receive unimodal or multimodal stimuli. Agalychnis callidryas embryos have more neuromasts than described for any other species at hatching, suggesting precocious sensory development may facilitate MCH. Our findings provide insight into the behavioral roles of two mechanosensory systems in ovo and open possibilities for exploring sensory perception across taxa in early life stages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julie Jung
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Shirley J Serrano-Rojas
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado Postal 0843-03092, Panamá, República de Panamá
| | - Karen M Warkentin
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado Postal 0843-03092, Panamá, República de Panamá
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Switching from mesopredator to apex predator: how do responses vary in amphibians adapted to cave living? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-020-02909-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The effective detection of both prey and predators is pivotal for the survival of mesopredators. However, the condition of being a mesopredator is strongly context dependent. Here we focus on two aquatic caudate species that have colonised caves: the Pyrenean newt (Calotriton asper) and the olm (Proteus anguinus). The former maintains both surface and subterranean populations, while only cave-adapted populations of the latter exist. Both species are apex predators in underground waterbodies, while the Pyrenean newt is a mesopredator in surface waterbodies. Shifting to a higher level of the trophic web through colonising caves may promote the loss of anti-predator response against surface apex predators, and an increase in the ability to detect prey. To test these two non-exclusive hypotheses, we integrated classical behavioural characterisations with a novel approach: the assessment of lateralisation (i.e. preference for one body side exposure). Behavioural experiments were performed using laboratory-reared individuals. We performed 684 trials on 39 Pyrenean newts and eight olms. Under darkness and light conditions, we tested how exposure to different chemical cues (predatory fish, prey and unknown scent) affected individuals’ activity and lateralisation. Both cave and surface Pyrenean newts responded to predator cues, while olms did not. In Pyrenean newts, predator cues reduced the time spent in movement and time spent in lateralisation associated with hunting. Our results show that predator recognition is maintained in a species where recently separated populations inhabit environments lacking of higher predators, while such behaviour tends to be lost in populations with longer history of adaptation.
Significance statement
Predator recognition can be maintained in animals adapted to predator free habitats, but varies with their history of adaptation. Species that are not at the apex of the food web can become top predators if they colonise subterranean environments. We compared the behavioural responses of the olm, a strictly cave species with a long underground evolutionary history, and of the Pyrenean newt, a facultative cave species that also has stream-dwelling populations. Moreover, we integrated a classical behavioural characterisation, such as movement detection, with a novel approach: the assessment of lateralisation. While olms do not respond to external predators scent, cave-dwelling newts still recognise it. This clearly indicates that predator recognition is still maintained in species that have colonised predator-free environments more recently.
Collapse
|
13
|
Atherton JA, McCormick MI. Parents know best: transgenerational predator recognition through parental effects. PeerJ 2020; 8:e9340. [PMID: 32596050 PMCID: PMC7306219 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In highly biodiverse systems, such as coral reefs, prey species are faced with predatory threats from numerous species. Recognition of predators can be innate, or learned, and can help increase the chance of survival. Research suggests that parental exposure to increased predatory threats can affect the development, behaviour, and ultimately, success of their offspring. Breeding pairs of damselfish (Acanthochromis polyacanthus) were subjected to one of three olfactory and visual treatments (predator, herbivore, or control), and their developing embryos were subsequently exposed to five different chemosensory cues. Offspring of parents assigned to the predator treatment exhibited a mean increase in heart rate two times greater than that of offspring from parents in herbivore or control treatments. This increased reaction to a parentally known predator odour suggests that predator-treated parents passed down relevant threat information to their offspring, via parental effects. This is the first time transgenerational recognition of a specific predator has been confirmed in any species. This phenomenon could influence predator-induced mortality rates and enable populations to adaptively respond to fluctuations in predator composition and environmental changes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A Atherton
- College of Science & Engineering, James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville, Queensland, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mark I McCormick
- College of Science & Engineering, James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville, Queensland, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Scribano G, Balestrieri A, Gazzola A, Pellitteri‐Rosa D. Strong behavioural defensive responses of endemic
Rana latastei
tadpoles induced by a native predator's odour. Ethology 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Scribano
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Pavia Pavia Italy
| | | | - Andrea Gazzola
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Pavia Pavia Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Gardner KM, Hunt RL, Mathis A. Response to conspecific alarm cues by larval and juvenile spotted salamanders ( Ambystoma maculatum). ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2019.1691058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katlyn M. Gardner
- Department of Biology, Missouri State University, 901 S. National, Springfield MO 65897, USA
- Department of Watershed Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84341, USA
| | - Robert L. Hunt
- Missouri Department of Natural Resources, 1101 Riverside Drive, Jefferson City, MO 65102, USA
| | - Alicia Mathis
- Department of Biology, Missouri State University, 901 S. National, Springfield MO 65897, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Awareness of danger inside the egg: Evidence of innate and learned predator recognition in cuttlefish embryos. Learn Behav 2020; 48:401-410. [PMID: 32221844 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-020-00424-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Predation can be a very strong selective pressure on prey. Many studies have shown the existence of innate anti-predator responses, mostly in the early developmental stages of juvenile vertebrates. Learning to recognize predators is another possible defensive resource, but such a method involves a high death risk. There is evidence that prenatal learning exists in animals but few studies have explicitly tested for embryonic learning. The aim of this study was to test innate and learned predator recognition in cuttlefish embryos. For this, naïve embryos were exposed to chemical and visual cues emanating from predators, non-predators, and ink. Their response was assessed by measuring their ventilation rate (VR). We first show that VR decreased in response to both visual and chemical predatory cues and ink but not to non-predatory cues. Second, we show that when non-predatory cues (visual or chemical) are paired with predatory cues or ink for several days, embryonic VR significantly decreased. Such a response is likely adaptive, especially in a translucent egg, since it results in reduced movement and hence may lower the risk of detection by visual predators. This freezing-like behavior may also reduce the bioelectric field, thus lessening the predation risk by non-visual foragers. Our results report that cuttlefish embryos had an innate capacity to differentiate between harmless and harmful chemical and visual cues. They were also capable of learning to respond to harmless cues when they were paired with danger (predator or ink) based on conditioning. The combination of these behavioral mechanisms is an example of the early adaptability of cephalopods. Such behavioral plasticity may give the newly hatched cuttlefish a selective advantage when dealing with either known or unfamiliar threats. Nevertheless, more experiments are needed to test the efficiency of the embryos' response faced with known or new predators.
Collapse
|
17
|
Garcia TS, Bredeweg EM, Urbina J, Ferrari MCO. Evaluating adaptive, carry-over, and plastic antipredator responses across a temporal gradient in Pacific chorus frogs. Ecology 2019; 100:e02825. [PMID: 31325377 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.2825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The development of antipredator traits is dependent on the frequency and intensity of predator exposure over evolutionary and ecological time. We hypothesized that prey species would respond with increasing accuracy when exposed to predators across generational, ontogenetic, and immediate time scales. We assessed larval Pacific chorus frog (PSRE; Pseudacris regilla) individuals that varied in population sympatry, embryonic conditioning, and immediate exposure to stocked populations of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Using PSRE populations from sites with and without resident rainbow trout, we conditioned embryos to trout odor, PSRE alarm cues, trout odor in combination with alarm cues, or control water. After being hatched and reared in control water, individuals were exposed to the four predator cue treatments using a fully factorial design. Tadpoles from populations with resident rainbow trout did not behave or develop differently than tadpoles originating from fishless sites. However, we found evidence that PSRE reduced predation risk with a combination of carry-over effect (i.e., transfer of information across life history stages) and within-life stage phenotypically plastic mechanisms. We found both developmental and behavioral carry-over effects: tadpoles conditioned with trout odor as embryos grew more slowly and took refuge more often than control animals. Within-life-stage behavioral plasticity was observed in tadpoles from all treatment groups, responding to predator cues with increased refuge use. Potentially additive effects of predator exposure on prey response should be considered when predicting the ability of prey to recognize novel threats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany S Garcia
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 97331, USA
| | - Evan M Bredeweg
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 97331, USA
| | - Jenny Urbina
- Environmental Science Program, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 97331, USA
| | - Maud C O Ferrari
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, WCVM, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5B4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Albecker MA, McCoy MW. Local adaptation for enhanced salt tolerance reduces non‐adaptive plasticity caused by osmotic stress. Evolution 2019; 73:1941-1957. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Molly A. Albecker
- Department of BiologyEast Carolina University Greenville North Carolina 27858
| | - Michael W. McCoy
- Department of BiologyEast Carolina University Greenville North Carolina 27858
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Ituarte RB, Vázquez MG, Bas CC. Chemically induced plasticity in early life history of Palaemon argentinus: are chemical alarm cues conserved within palaemonid shrimps? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:jeb.199984. [PMID: 31171603 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.199984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Most aquatic animals use infochemicals from both conspecifics and heterospecifics to assess local predation risks and enhance predator detection. Released substances from injured conspecifics and other species (chemical alarm cues) are reliable cues to indicate an imminent danger in a specific habitat and often mediate the development of inducible defenses. Amphibian and fish embryos have been shown to acquire this information while at the embryonic stage of development, in relation to the developing nervous system and sensory development. With the exception of Daphnia, there is no information on chemically mediated responses to alarm cues in embryos of any crustacean groups. Therefore, we tested whether embryo exposure to chemical cues simulating predation on conspecifics or heterospecifics (closely related, non-coexisting species), or a mixture of both, alters embryonic developmental time, size and morphology of the first larval instar in Palaemon argentinus (Crustacea: Decapoda). Embryonic exposure to chemical alarm cues from conspecifics shortened the embryonic developmental time and elicited larger larvae with a longer rostrum. Rostrum length of the first larval instar changed independently of their size, thus elongated rostra can be considered a defensive feature. Embryonic developmental time was not altered by chemical alarm cues from either heterospecifics or the mixed cues treatment; however, exposure to these cues resulted in larger larvae compared with the control group. Chemically induced morphological plasticity in larvae in response to alarm cues from con- and heterospecifics suggests that such cues are conserved in palaemonids shrimps, providing embryos with an innate recognition of heterospecific alarm cues as predicted by the phylogenetic relatedness hypothesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Romina B Ituarte
- Grupo Zoología Invertebrados, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (FCEyN), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina .,Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina
| | - María G Vázquez
- Grupo Zoología Invertebrados, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (FCEyN), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina.,Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina
| | - Claudia C Bas
- Grupo Zoología Invertebrados, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (FCEyN), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina.,Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Diquelou MC, Griffin AS. It’s a trap! Invasive common mynas learn socially about control-related cues. Behav Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arz079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Marie C Diquelou
- School of Psychology, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Andrea S Griffin
- School of Psychology, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Bytheway JP, Banks PB. Overcoming prey naiveté: Free-living marsupials develop recognition and effective behavioral responses to alien predators in Australia. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2019; 25:1685-1695. [PMID: 30822357 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.14607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Naiveté in prey arises from novel ecological mismatches in cue recognition systems and antipredator responses following the arrival of alien predators. The multilevel naiveté framework suggests that animals can progress through levels of naiveté toward predator awareness. Alternatively, native prey may be preadapted to recognize novel predators via common constituents in predator odors or familiar predator archetypes. We tested predictions of these competing hypotheses on the mechanisms driving behavioral responses of native species to alien predators by measuring responses of native free-living northern brown bandicoots (Isoodon macrourus) to alien red fox (Vulpes vulpes) odor. We compared multiple bandicoot populations either sympatric or allopatric with foxes. Bandicoots sympatric with foxes showed recognition and appropriate antipredator behavior toward fox odor via avoidance. On the few occasions bandicoots did visit, their vigilance significantly increased, and their foraging decreased. In contrast, bandicoots allopatric with foxes showed no recognition of this predator cue. Our results suggest that vulnerable Australian mammals were likely naïve to foxes when they first arrived, which explains why so many native mammals declined soon after fox arrival. Our results also suggest such naiveté can be overcome within a relatively short time frame, driven by experience with predators, thus supporting the multilevel naiveté framework.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jenna P Bytheway
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Peter B Banks
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Lucon‐Xiccato T. Tadpoles modulate antipredator responses according to the abundance of vegetation experienced during the embryonic stage. J Zool (1987) 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. Lucon‐Xiccato
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology University of Ferrara Italy
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Crane AL, Helton EJ, Ferrari MC, Mathis A. Learning to find food: evidence for embryonic sensitization and juvenile social learning in a salamander. Anim Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
|
24
|
Embryonic background risk promotes the survival of tadpoles facing surface predators. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0193939. [PMID: 29561913 PMCID: PMC5862455 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to intense predation risk can induce morphological and behavioural phenotypes that prepare prey, often at young ages, for surviving attacks from unknown predators. However, previous studies revealed that this survival advantage depended on the predator species. Here, we used alarm cues from injured conspecifics to simulate a period of high predation risk for embryonic wood frogs, Lithobates sylvaticus. Two weeks post-hatching, we tested whether the embryonic risk exposure influenced survival in encounters with two novel predators: (1) a spider (Dolomedes sp.) that ambushes prey exclusively on the surface of the water, and (2) the adult predacious diving beetle (Dytiscus sp.) which displays underwater sit-and-wait posture and pursuit tactics. Tadpoles exposed to embryonic high-risk survived longer when encountering spiders, whereas background risk had no influence on survival with adult beetles. These findings, coupled with survival studies involving other predator types, indicate that a high-risk environment promotes tadpole survival in future encounters with unknown sit-and-wait predators, but at the cost of increased vulnerability to novel predators capable of active pursuit.
Collapse
|
25
|
McIvor GE, Lee VE, Thornton A. Testing social learning of anti-predator responses in juvenile jackdaws: the importance of accounting for levels of agitation. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:171571. [PMID: 29410861 PMCID: PMC5792938 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.171571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Social learning is often assumed to help young animals respond appropriately to potential threats in the environment. We brought wild, juvenile jackdaws briefly into captivity to test whether short exposures to conspecific vocalizations are sufficient to promote anti-predator learning. Individuals were presented with one of two models-a stuffed fox representing a genuine threat, or a toy elephant simulating a novel predator. Following an initial baseline presentation, juveniles were trained by pairing models with either adult mobbing calls, indicating danger, or contact calls suggesting no danger. In a final test phase with no playbacks, birds appeared to have habituated to the elephant, regardless of training, but responses to the fox remained high throughout, suggesting juveniles already recognized it as a predator before the experiment began. Training with mobbing calls did seem to generate elevated escape responses, but this was likely to be a carry-over effect of the playback in the previous trial. Overall, we found little evidence for social learning. Instead, individuals' responses were mainly driven by their level of agitation immediately preceding each presentation. These results highlight the importance of accounting for agitation in studies of anti-predator learning, and whenever animals are held in captivity for short periods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guillam E. McIvor
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | | | - Alex Thornton
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Garcia TS, Urbina JC, Bredeweg EM, Ferrari MCO. Embryonic learning and developmental carry-over effects in an invasive anuran. Oecologia 2017; 184:623-631. [PMID: 28669002 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-017-3905-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Carry-over effects influence trait responses in later life stages as a result of early experience with environmental cues. Predation risk is an influential stressor and selection exists for early recognition of threats. In particular, invasive species may benefit from carry-over effects by preemptively recognizing and responding to novel predators via latent developmental changes and embryonic learning. In a factorial experiment, we conditioned invasive American bullfrog embryos (Lithobates catesbeianus) to the odor of a novel fish predator, largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) alone or in combination with injured conspecific cues. We quantified developmental carryover in the larval life stage and found that individuals conditioned to the highest risk (fish and injured conspecific cues) grew into longer bodied larvae relative to larvae from lower risk treatments. We also assessed embryonic learning, a behavioral carry-over effect, and found an interaction between embryonic conditioning and larval exposure. Behavioral responses were only found in scenarios when predation risk varied in intensity across life history stages, thus requiring a more flexible antipredator strategy. This indicates a potential trade-off between the two strategies in larval growth and development rates, and time until metamorphosis. Our results suggest that early predator exposure and carry-over effects have significant impacts on life history trajectories for American bullfrogs. This research contributes to our understanding of a potentially important invasion mechanism in an anuran species of conservation concern.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany S Garcia
- 104 Nash Hall, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA.
| | - Jenny C Urbina
- Environmental Science Program, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - Evan M Bredeweg
- 104 Nash Hall, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - Maud C O Ferrari
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, WCVM, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7N 5B4, SK, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Evidence for risk extrapolation in decision making by tadpoles. Sci Rep 2017; 7:43255. [PMID: 28230097 PMCID: PMC5322362 DOI: 10.1038/srep43255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Through time, the activity patterns, morphology, and development of both predators and prey change, which in turn alter the relative vulnerability of prey to their coexisting predators. Recognizing these changes can thus allow prey to make optimal decisions by projecting risk trends into the future. We used tadpoles (Lithobates sylvaticus) to test the hypothesis that tadpoles can extrapolate information about predation risk from past information. We exposed tadpoles to an odour that represented either a temporally consistent risk or an increasing risk. When tested for their response to the odour, the initial antipredator behaviour of tadpoles did not differ, appearing to approach the limit of their maximum response, but exposure to increasing risk induced longer retention of these responses. When repeating the experiment using lower risk levels, heightened responses occurred for tadpoles exposed to increasing risk, and the strongest responses were exhibited by those that received an abrupt increase compared to a steady increase. Our results indicate that tadpoles can assess risk trends through time and adjust their antipredator responses in a way consistent with an extrapolated trend. This is a sophisticated method for prey to avoid threats that are becoming more (or less) dangerous over part of their lifespan.
Collapse
|
28
|
Crane AL, Demuth BS, Ferrari MC. Experience with predators shapes learning rules in larval amphibians. Behav Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arw161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
|
29
|
Chivers DP, Mitchell MD, Lucon-Xiccato T, Brown GE, Ferrari MC. Background risk influences learning but not generalization of predators. Anim Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
|
30
|
Sehr EK, Beasley LN, Wilson KW, Gall BG. When can embryos learn? A test of the timing of learning in embryonic amphibians. Ecol Evol 2016; 6:2486-93. [PMID: 27110353 PMCID: PMC4834331 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Learning is crucial to the survival of organisms across their life span, including during embryonic development. We set out to determine when learning becomes possible in amphibian development by exposing spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum) embryos to chemical stimuli from a predator (Ambystoma opacum), nonpredator (Lithobates clamitans), or control at developmental stages 16-21 or 36-38 (Harrison 1969). Once exposures were completed and embryos hatched, we recorded the number of movements and time spent moving of individuals in both groups and all treatments. There was no significant difference in number of movements or time spent moving among any of the treatments. The groups that were exposed to predator stimuli and a blank control at stages 36-38 were also tested to determine whether there was a difference in refuge preference or difference in survivorship when exposed to a predator (marbled salamander). There was no difference in survival or refuge preference between individuals; however, all individuals preferred vegetated over open areas regardless of treatment type. We discuss hypotheses for the absence of embryonic learning in this species and suggest it may be the result of the intensity of the predator-prey interaction between the predator, large marbled salamander larvae, and the prey, spotted salamander larvae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Evie K Sehr
- Department of Biology Hanover College Hanover Indiana 47243
| | | | | | - Brian G Gall
- Department of Biology Hanover College Hanover Indiana 47243
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Chivers DP, Mathiron A, Sloychuk JR, Ferrari MCO. Responses of tadpoles to hybrid predator odours: strong maternal signatures and the potential risk/response mismatch. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 282:20150365. [PMID: 26041358 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.0365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have established that when a prey animal knows the identity of a particular predator, it can use this knowledge to make an 'educated guess' about similar novel predators. Such generalization of predator recognition may be particularly beneficial when prey are exposed to introduced and invasive species of predators or hybrids. Here, we examined generalization of predator recognition for woodfrog tadpoles exposed to novel trout predators. Tadpoles conditioned to recognize tiger trout, a hybrid derived from brown trout and brook trout, showed generalization of recognition of several unknown trout odours. Interestingly, the tadpoles showed stronger responses to odours of brown trout than brook trout. In a second experiment, we found that tadpoles trained to recognize brown trout showed stronger responses to tiger trout than those tadpoles trained to recognize brook trout. Given that tiger trout always have a brown trout mother and a brook trout father, these results suggest a strong maternal signature in trout odours. Tadpoles that were trained to recognize both brown trout and brook trout showed stronger response to novel tiger trout than those trained to recognize only brown trout or only brook trout. This is consistent with a peak shift in recognition, whereby cues that are intermediate between two known cues evoke stronger responses than either known cue. Given that our woodfrog tadpoles have no evolutionary or individual experience with trout, they have no way of knowing whether or not brook trout, brown trout or tiger trout are more dangerous. The differential intensity of responses that we observed to hybrid trout cues and each of the parental species indicates that there is a likely mismatch between risk and anti-predator response intensity. Future work needs to address the critical role of prey naivety on responses to invasive and introduced hybrid predators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Douglas P Chivers
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada SK S7N 5E2
| | - Anthony Mathiron
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, WCVM, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada SK S7W 5B4
| | - Janelle R Sloychuk
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada SK S7N 5E2
| | - Maud C O Ferrari
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, WCVM, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada SK S7W 5B4
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Ferrari MC, Crane AL, Chivers DP. Certainty and the cognitive ecology of generalization of predator recognition. Anim Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
33
|
Albecker M, Vance-Chalcraft HD. Mismatched anti-predator behavioral responses in predator-naïve larval anurans. PeerJ 2015; 3:e1472. [PMID: 26664805 PMCID: PMC4675102 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.1472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Organisms are adept at altering behaviors to balance the tradeoff between foraging and predation risk in spatially and temporally shifting predator environments. In order to optimize this tradeoff, prey need to be able to display an appropriate response based on degree of predation risk. To be most beneficial in the earliest life stages in which many prey are vulnerable to predation, innate anti-predator responses should scale to match the risk imposed by predators until learned anti-predator responses can occur. We conducted an experiment that examined whether tadpoles with no previous exposure to predators (i.e., predator-naive) exhibit innate antipredator behavioral responses (e.g., via refuge use and spatial avoidance) that match the actual risk posed by each predator. Using 7 treatments (6 free-roaming, lethal predators plus no-predator control), we determined the predation rates of each predator on Lithobates sphenocephalus tadpoles. We recorded behavioral observations on an additional 7 nonlethal treatments (6 caged predators plus no-predator control). Tadpoles exhibited innate responses to fish predators, but not non-fish predators, even though two non-fish predators (newt and crayfish) consumed the most tadpoles. Due to a mismatch between innate response and predator consumption, tadpoles may be vulnerable to greater rates of predation at the earliest life stages before learning can occur. Thus, naïve tadpoles in nature may be at a high risk to predation in the presence of a novel predator until learned anti-predator responses provide additional defenses to the surviving tadpoles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Molly Albecker
- Department of Biology and East Carolina Biodiversity Initiative, East Carolina University , Greenville, NC , United States
| | - Heather D Vance-Chalcraft
- Department of Biology and East Carolina Biodiversity Initiative, East Carolina University , Greenville, NC , United States
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Mitchell MD, Chivers DP, McCormick MI, Ferrari MCO. Learning to distinguish between predators and non-predators: understanding the critical role of diet cues and predator odours in generalisation. Sci Rep 2015; 5:13918. [PMID: 26358861 PMCID: PMC4566087 DOI: 10.1038/srep13918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
It is critical for prey to recognise predators and distinguish predators from non-threatening species. Yet, we have little understanding of how prey develop effective predator recognition templates. Recent studies suggest that prey may actually learn key predator features which can be used to recognise novel species with similar characteristics. However, non-predators are sometimes mislabelled as predators when generalising recognition. Here, we conduct the first comprehensive investigation of how prey integrate information on predator odours and predator diet cues in generalisation, allowing them to discriminate between predators and non-predators. We taught lemon damselfish to recognise a predator fed a fish diet, and tested them for their response to the known predator and a series of novel predators (fed fish diet) and non-predators (fed squid diet) distributed across a phylogenetic gradient. Our findings show that damselfish distinguish between predators and non-predators when generalising recognition. Additional experiments revealed that generalised recognition did not result from recognition of predator odours or diet cues, but that damselfish based recognition on what they learned during the initial conditioning. Incorporating multiple sources of information enables prey to develop highly plastic and accurate recognition templates that will increase survival in patchy environments where they have little prior knowledge.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Mitchell
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, WCVM, University of Saskatchewan, SK, Canada
| | | | - Mark I McCormick
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, and College of Marine &Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - Maud C O Ferrari
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, WCVM, University of Saskatchewan, SK, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Gazzola A, Brandalise F, Rubolini D, Rossi P, Galeotti P. Fear is the mother of invention: anuran embryos exposed to predator cues alter life-history traits, post-hatching behaviour, and neuronal activity patterns. J Exp Biol 2015; 218:3919-30. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.126334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Neurophysiological modifications associated to phenotypic plasticity in response to predators are largely unexplored, and there is a gap of knowledge on how the information encoded in predator cues is processed by prey sensory systems. To explore these issues, we exposed Rana dalmatina embryos to dragonfly chemical cues (kairomones) up to hatching. At different times after hatching (up to 40 days), we recorded morphology and antipredator behaviour of control and embryonic-treated tadpoles as well as their neural olfactory responses, by recording the activity of their mitral neurons before and after exposure to a kairomone solution. Embryonic-treated embryos hatched later and originated smaller hatchlings than control siblings. In addition, embryonic-treated tadpoles showed a stronger antipredator response than controls at 10 (but not at 30) days post-hatching, though the intensity of the contextual response to the kairomone stimulus did not differ between the two groups. Baseline neuronal activity at 30 days post-hatching, as assessed by the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic events and by the firing rate of mitral cells, was higher among embryonic-treated tadpoles compared to controls. At the same time, neuronal activity showed a stronger increase among embryonic-treated tadpoles than among controls after a local kairomone perfusion. Hence, a different contextual plasticity between treatments at the neuronal level was not mirrored by the antipredator behavioural response. In conclusion, our experiments demonstrate ontogenetic plasticity in tadpole neuronal activity after embryonic exposure to predator cues, corroborating the evidence that early-life experience can contribute to shaping the phenotype at later life stages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Gazzola
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e dell'Ambiente, Laboratorio di Eco-Etologia, Università di Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Federico Brandalise
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie, Laboratorio di Fisiologia, Università di Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100, Pavia, Italy
- Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich, Wintethurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, CH, Switzerland
| | - Diego Rubolini
- Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università di Milano, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Paola Rossi
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie, Laboratorio di Fisiologia, Università di Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Paolo Galeotti
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e dell'Ambiente, Laboratorio di Eco-Etologia, Università di Pavia, Via Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Hettena AM, Munoz N, Blumstein DT. Prey Responses to Predator's Sounds: A Review and Empirical Study. Ethology 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicole Munoz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of California Los Angeles; Los Angeles CA USA
| | - Daniel T. Blumstein
- The Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory; Crested Butte CO USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of California Los Angeles; Los Angeles CA USA
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Hua J, Morehouse NI, Relyea R. Pesticide tolerance in amphibians: induced tolerance in susceptible populations, constitutive tolerance in tolerant populations. Evol Appl 2013; 6:1028-40. [PMID: 24187585 PMCID: PMC3804236 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2013] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of plasticity in shaping adaptations is important to understanding the expression of traits within individuals and the evolution of populations. With increasing human impacts on the environment, one challenge is to consider how plasticity shapes responses to anthropogenic stressors such as contaminants. To our knowledge, only one study (using mosquitoes) has considered the possibility of induced insecticide tolerance. Using populations of wood frogs (Lithobates sylvaticus) located close to and far from agricultural fields, we discovered that exposing some populations of embryos and hatchlings to sublethal concentrations of the insecticide carbaryl induced higher tolerance to a subsequent lethal concentration later in life. Interestingly, the inducible populations were located >800 m from agricultural areas and were the most susceptible to the insecticide. In contrast, the noninducible populations were located close to agricultural areas and were the least susceptible. We also found that sublethal concentrations of carbaryl induced higher tadpole AChE concentrations in several cases. This is the first study to demonstrate inducible tolerance in a vertebrate species and the pattern of inducible and constitutive tolerance among populations suggests the process of genetic assimilation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Hua
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
A danger foreseen is a danger avoided: how chemical cues of different tadpoles influence parental decisions of a Neotropical poison frog. Anim Cogn 2013; 17:267-75. [PMID: 23852187 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-013-0659-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Revised: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/02/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The protection of offspring against predators and competitors is especially important in organisms using spatially separated breeding resources, impeding the offspring's chances to escape. One example of such isolated reproductive resources are phytotelmata (small water bodies in plant axils), exploited by the Neotropical poison frog Ranitomeya variabilis (Dendrobatidae) for both clutch and tadpole deposition. Because poison frog tadpoles are often cannibalistic, parents tend to avoid deposition with conspecifics. Previous studies have shown that this avoidance is based on chemical cues produced by conspecific tadpoles. Further, cues produced by phylogenetically less-related tadpoles (Bufonidae) were avoided for clutch but not tadpole depositions. We analyzed how the different responses to tadpole cues are triggered. We tested the reactions of parental R. variabilis to tadpole cues of species differing in two aspects: whether or not they are dendrobatids, and whether or not they reproduce in phytotelmata. We found that for clutch deposition, tadpole cues were always avoided, i.e., all tadpoles were treated by the frogs as if they pose a danger to the eggs. However, responses varied for tadpole depositions: while dendrobatid larvae living in phytotelmata were avoided, those breeding in streams were not. Non-poison frog tadpoles were ignored when associated with habitat other than phytotelmata, but they were preferred when living in phytotelmata. This suggests that both phylogeny and tadpole habitat are important triggers for the decisions made by R. variabilis. Only tadpoles using the same breeding resources are considered as relevant for the frog's own larvae (i.e., as a potential danger or food resource), while further decisions are related to evolutionary relationship.
Collapse
|
39
|
Chivers DP, Ferrari MCO. Tadpole antipredator responses change over time: what is the role of learning and generalization? Behav Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/art038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
|
40
|
|
41
|
Mitchell MD, McCormick MI, Chivers DP, Ferrari MCO. Generalization of learned predator recognition in coral reef ecosystems: how cautious are damselfish? Funct Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Mitchell
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies and School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University Townsville Queensland 4811 Australia
| | - Mark I. McCormick
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies and School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University Townsville Queensland 4811 Australia
| | - Douglas P. Chivers
- Department of Biology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon Saskatchewan S7N 5E2 Canada
| | - Maud C. O. Ferrari
- Department of Biomedical Sciences WCVM, University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon Saskatchewan S7N 5B4 Canada
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Brown GE, Ferrari MCO, Elvidge CK, Ramnarine I, Chivers DP. Phenotypically plastic neophobia: a response to variable predation risk. Proc Biol Sci 2013; 280:20122712. [PMID: 23390103 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2012.2712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Prey species possess a variety of morphological, life history and behavioural adaptations to evade predators. While specific evolutionary conditions have led to the expression of permanent, non-plastic anti-predator traits, the vast majority of prey species rely on experience to express adaptive anti-predator defences. While ecologists have identified highly sophisticated means through which naive prey can deal with predation threats, the potential for death upon the first encounter with a predator is still a remarkably important unresolved issue. Here, we used both laboratory and field studies to provide the first evidence for risk-induced neophobia in two taxa (fish and amphibians), and argue that phenotypically plastic neophobia acts as an adaptive anti-predator strategy for vulnerable prey dealing with spatial and temporal variation in predation risk. Our study also illustrates how risk-free maintenance conditions used in laboratory studies may blind researchers to adaptive anti-predator strategies that are only expressed in high-risk conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Grant E Brown
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St West, Montreal, Qubec, Canada H4B 1R6.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Chivers DP, Al-Batati F, Brown GE, Ferrari MCO. The effect of turbidity on recognition and generalization of predators and non-predators in aquatic ecosystems. Ecol Evol 2012; 3:268-77. [PMID: 23467451 PMCID: PMC3586637 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2012] [Revised: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent anthropogenic activities have caused a considerable change in the turbidity of freshwater and marine ecosystems. Concomitant with such perturbations are changes in community composition. Understanding the mechanisms through which species interactions are influenced by anthropogenic change has come to the forefront of many ecological disciplines. Here, we examine how a change in the availability of visual information influences the behavior of prey fish exposed to potential predators and non-predators. When fathead minnows, Pimephales promelas, were conditioned to recognize predators and non-predators in clear water, they showed a highly sophisticated ability to distinguish predators from non-predators. However, when learning occurred under conditions of increased turbidity, the ability of the prey to learn and generalize recognition of predators and non-predators was severely impaired. Our work highlights that changes at the community level associated with anthropogenic perturbations may be mediated through altered trophic interactions, and highlights the need to closely examine behavioral interactions to understand how species interactions change.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Douglas P Chivers
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan SK, S7N 5E2, Canada
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Brown GE, Elvidge CK, Ferrari MCO, Chivers DP. Understanding the importance of episodic acidification on fish predator-prey interactions: does weak acidification impair predator recognition? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2012; 439:62-6. [PMID: 23063639 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Revised: 09/04/2012] [Accepted: 09/11/2012] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The ability of prey to recognize predators is a fundamental prerequisite to avoid being eaten. Indeed, many prey animals learn to distinguish species that pose a threat from those that do not. Once the prey has learned the identity of one predator, it may generalize this recognition to similar predators with which the prey has no experience. The ability to generalize reduces the costs associated with learning and further enhances the ability of the prey to avoid relevant threats. For many aquatic organisms, recognition of predators is based on odor signatures, consequently any anthropogenic alteration in water chemistry has the potential to impair recognition and learning of predators. Here we explored whether episodic acidification could influence the ability of juvenile rainbow trout to learn to recognize an unknown predator and then generalize this recognition to a closely related predator. Trout were conditioned to recognize the odor of pumpkinseed sunfish under circumneutral (~pH 7) conditions, and then tested for recognition of pumpkinseed or longear sunfish under both neutral or weakly acidic (~pH 6) conditions. When tested for a response to pumpkinseed odor, we found no significant effect of predator odor pH: trout responded similarly regardless of pH. Moreover, under neutral conditions, trout were able to generalize their recognition to the odor of longear sunfish. However, the trout could not generalize their recognition of the longear sunfish under acidic conditions. Given the widespread occurrence of anthropogenic acidification, acid-mediated impairment of predator recognition and generalization may be a pervasive problem for freshwater salmonid populations and other aquatic organisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Grant E Brown
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC, Canada H4B 1R6.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Learning about non-predators and safe places: the forgotten elements of risk assessment. Anim Cogn 2011; 14:309-16. [PMID: 21203793 PMCID: PMC3078302 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-010-0363-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2010] [Revised: 11/17/2010] [Accepted: 11/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A fundamental prerequisite for prey to avoid being captured is the ability to distinguish dangerous stimuli such as predators and risky habitats from non-dangerous stimuli such as non-predators and safe locations. Most research to date has focused on mechanisms allowing prey to learn to recognize risky stimuli. The paradox of learned predator recognition is that its remarkable efficiency leaves room for potentially costly mistakes if prey inadvertently learn to recognize non-predatory species as dangerous. Here, we pre-exposed embryonic woodfrogs, Rana sylvatica, to the odour of a tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum, without risk reinforcement, and later try to teach the tadpoles to recognize the salamander, a red-bellied newt Cynops pyrrhogaster—a closely related amphibian, or a goldfish, Carassiusauratus, as a predator. Tadpoles were then tested for their responses to salamander, newt or fish odour. Pre-exposure to salamander did not affect the ability of tadpoles to learn to recognize goldfish as a predator. However, the embryonic pre-exposure to salamanders inhibited the subsequent learning of salamanders as a potential predator, through a mechanism known as latent inhibition. The embryonic pre-exposure also prevented the learned recognition of novel newts, indicating complete generalization of non-predator recognition. This pattern does not match that of generalization of predator recognition, whereby species learning to recognize a novel predator do respond, but not as strongly, to novel species closely related to the known predator. The current paper discusses the costs of making recognition mistakes within the context of generalization of predators and dangerous habitats versus generalization of non-predators and safe habitats and highlights the asymmetry in which amphibians incorporate information related to safe versus risky cues in their decision-making. Mechanisms such as latent inhibition allow a variety of prey species to collect information about non-threatening stimuli, as early as during their embryonic development, and to use this information later in life to infer the danger level associated with the stimuli.
Collapse
|
46
|
Ferrari MC, Wisenden BD, Chivers DP. Chemical ecology of predator–prey interactions in aquatic ecosystems: a review and prospectusThe present review is one in the special series of reviews on animal–plant interactions. CAN J ZOOL 2010. [DOI: 10.1139/z10-029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 649] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The interaction between predator and prey is an evolutionary arms race, for which early detection by either party is often the key to success. In aquatic ecosystems, olfaction is an essential source of information for many prey and predators and a number of cues have been shown to play a key role in trait-mediated indirect interactions in aquatic communities. Here, we review the nature and role of predator kairomones, chemical alarm cues, disturbance cues, and diet cues on the behaviour, morphology, life history, and survival of aquatic prey, focusing primarily on the discoveries from the last decade. Many advances in the field have been accomplished: testing the survival value of those chemicals, providing field validation of laboratory results, understanding the extent to which chemically mediated learning may benefit the prey, understanding the role of these chemicals in mediating morphological and life-history adaptations, and most importantly, the selection pressures leading to the evolution of chemical alarm cues. Although considerable advances have been made, several key questions remain, the most urgent of which is to understand the chemistry behind these interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maud C.O. Ferrari
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2, Canada
- Biosciences Department, Minnesota State University Moorhead, 1104 7th Avenue South, Moorhead, MN 56563, USA
| | - Brian D. Wisenden
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2, Canada
- Biosciences Department, Minnesota State University Moorhead, 1104 7th Avenue South, Moorhead, MN 56563, USA
| | - Douglas P. Chivers
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2, Canada
- Biosciences Department, Minnesota State University Moorhead, 1104 7th Avenue South, Moorhead, MN 56563, USA
| |
Collapse
|