1
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Jobson S, Hamel JF, Mercier A. Shake it off: exploring drivers and outcomes of autotomy in marine invertebrates. Biol Lett 2024; 20:20240015. [PMID: 38807548 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2024.0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Autotomy refers to self-amputation where the loss of a limb or organ is generally said to be (1) in response to stressful external stimuli; (2) voluntary and nervously mediated; (3) supported by adaptive features that increase efficiency and simultaneously mediate the cost; and (4) morphologically delineated by a predictable breakage plane. It is estimated that this phenomenon has evolved independently nine different times across the animal kingdom, appearing in many different taxa, including vertebrate and invertebrate as well as aquatic and terrestrial animals. Marine invertebrates use this behaviour in a diversity of manners that have yet to be globally reviewed and critically examined. Here, published data from marine invertebrate taxa were used to explore instances of injury as an evolutionary driver of autotomy. Findings suggest that phyla (e.g. Echinodermata and Arthropoda) possibly experiencing high rates of injury (tissue damage or loss) are more likely to be able to perform autotomy. Additionally, this review looks at various morphological, physiological and environmental conditions that have either driven the evolution or maintained the behaviour of autotomy in marine invertebrates. Finally, the use of autotomic abilities in the development of more sustainable and less ecologically invasive fisheries is explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Jobson
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University , St John's (Newfoundland and Labrador), Canada
| | - Jean-François Hamel
- Society for the Exploration and Valuing of the Environment , St Philips (Newfoundland and Labrador), Canada
| | - Annie Mercier
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University , St John's (Newfoundland and Labrador), Canada
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2
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Yu F, Wang X, Zhao Y, Li Z. Influence of age, breeding state and approach direction on sensitivity to human gaze: a field study on Azure-winged magpies. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:1369-1379. [PMID: 37191910 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-023-01786-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
In predator-prey interactions, various factors affect the prey's perception of risk and decision to flee. Gaze sensitivity, the ability to react to the presence, direction, or movement of the head and eyes, has been reported in many birds. However, few studies have focussed on variation in sensitivity to human gaze in relation to other risks and potential breeding costs. Here, we studied the influence of human gaze on the escape behaviour of Azure-winged magpies (Cyanopica cyanus) and investigated the effects of breeding state (breeding season and nonbreeding season) and approach direction on gaze sensitivity. In Experiment 1, we tested whether magpies showed different sensitivities to human gaze according to age class and breeding state when approached directly. The results showed that the breeding state could affect the flight initiation distance (FID), with adults in the breeding season having a shorter FID compared to those in the nonbreeding season. Meanwhile, only adults were found to be averse to direct human gaze and juveniles showed no sensitivity. In Experiment 2, we conducted three different gaze treatments on adult magpies in the breeding season under three bypass distances (0 m, 2.5 m, 5 m). The results showed that approach direction had no effect on FID, while the sensitivity to human gaze differed under three bypass distances. Adults could clearly recognise human head and eye direction at a certain bypass distance (2.5 m). Our study reveals the cognitive ability of Azure-winged magpies to human head and eye direction and the effects of age, breeding state and approach direction, which may provide further insights into human-wildlife interactions, especially for birds in urban habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Yu
- Laboratory of Animal Behaviour and Conservation, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xu Wang
- Laboratory of Animal Behaviour and Conservation, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yumeng Zhao
- Laboratory of Animal Behaviour and Conservation, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhongqiu Li
- Laboratory of Animal Behaviour and Conservation, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Jiangsu, China.
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3
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Wrensford K, Gutierrez J, Cooper WE, Blumstein DT. Empirical studies of escape behavior find mixed support for the race for life model. Curr Zool 2022; 68:305-313. [PMID: 35592352 PMCID: PMC9113366 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoab062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Escape theory has been exceptionally successful in conceptualizing and accurately predicting effects of numerous factors that affect predation risk and explaining variation in flight initiation distance (FID; predator-prey distance when escape begins). Less explored is the relative orientation of an approaching predator, prey, and its eventual refuge. The relationship between an approaching threat and its refuge can be expressed as an angle we call the "interpath angle" or "Φ," which describes the angle between the paths of predator and prey to the prey's refuge and thus expresses the degree to which prey must run toward an approaching predator. In general, we might expect that prey would escape at greater distances if they must flee toward a predator to reach its burrow. The "race for life" model makes formal predictions about how Φ should affect FID. We evaluated the model by studying escape decisions in yellow-bellied marmots Marmota flaviventer, a species which flees to burrows. We found support for some of the model's predictions, yet the relationship between Φ and FID was less clear. Marmots may not assess Φ in a continuous fashion; but we found that binning angle into 4 45° bins explained a similar amount of variation as models that analyzed angle continuously. Future studies of Φ, especially those that focus on how different species perceive relative orientation, will likely enhance our understanding of its importance in flight decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwasi Wrensford
- Department of Integrative Biology, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- The Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, Crested Butte, CO 81224, USA
| | | | - William E Cooper
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805, USA
| | - Daniel T Blumstein
- The Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, Crested Butte, CO 81224, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, 6121 Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA
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4
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Cusick JA, Wellman CL, Demas GE. Maternal stress and the maternal microbiome have sex-specific effects on offspring development and aggressive behavior in Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus). Horm Behav 2022; 141:105146. [PMID: 35276524 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The gut microbiome, a community of commensal, symbiotic and pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses, interacts with many physiological systems to affect behavior. Prenatal experiences, including exposure to maternal stress and different maternal microbiomes, are important sources of organismal variation that can affect offspring development. These physiological systems do not act in isolation and can have long-term effects on offspring development and behavior. Here we investigated the interactive effects of maternal stress and manipulations of the maternal microbiome on offspring development and social behavior using Siberian hamsters, Phodopus sungorus. We exposed pregnant females to either a social stressor, antibiotics, both the social stressor and antibiotics, or no treatment (i.e., control) over the duration of their pregnancy and quantified male and female offspring growth, gut microbiome composition and diversity, stress-induced cortisol concentrations, and social behavior. Maternal antibiotic exposure altered the gut microbial communities of male and female offspring. Maternal treatment also had sex-specific effects on aspects of offspring development and aggressive behavior. Female offspring produced by stressed mothers were more aggressive than other female offspring. Female, but not male, offspring produced by mothers exposed to the combined treatment displayed low levels of aggression, suggesting that alteration of the maternal microbiome attenuated the effects of prenatal stress in a sex-specific manner. Maternal treatment did not affect non-aggressive behavior in offspring. Collectively, our study offers insight into how maternal systems can interact to affect offspring in sex-specific ways and highlights the important role of the maternal microbiome in mediating offspring development and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Cusick
- Department of Biology, Utah Valley University, United States of America; Department of Biology, Indiana University, United States of America; Animal Behavior Program, Indiana University, United States of America.
| | - Cara L Wellman
- Animal Behavior Program, Indiana University, United States of America; Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, United States of America; Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, United States of America
| | - Gregory E Demas
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, United States of America; Animal Behavior Program, Indiana University, United States of America; Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University, United States of America
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5
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Ontogeny and caudal autotomy fracture planes in a large scincid lizard, Egernia kingii. Sci Rep 2022; 12:7051. [PMID: 35488011 PMCID: PMC9054770 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-10962-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Many lizard species use caudal autotomy, the ability to self-amputate a portion of the tail, as an effective but costly survival strategy. However, as a lizard grows, its increased size may reduce predation risk allowing for less costly strategies (e.g., biting and clawing) to be used as the primary defence. The King's skink (Egernia kingii) is a large scincid up to approximately 244 mm snout to vent length (SVL) in size when adult. Adults rely less on caudal autotomy than do juveniles due to their size and strength increase during maturation. It has been hypothesised that lower behavioural reliance on autotomy in adults is reflected in loss or restriction of caudal vertebrae fracture planes through ossification as caudal intra-vertebral fracture planes in some species ossify during ontogenetic growth. To test this, we used micro-CT to image the tails of a growth series of seven individuals of E. kingii. We show that fracture planes are not lost or restricted ontogenetically within E. kingii, with adults retaining between 39-44 autotomisable vertebrae following 5-6 non-autotomisable vertebrae. Even though mature E. kingii rely less on caudal autotomy than do juveniles, this research shows that they retain the maximum ability to autotomise their tails, providing a last resort option to avoid threats. The potential costs associated with retaining caudal autotomy are most likely mitigated through neurological control of autotomy and E. kingii's longevity.
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Cyriac VP, Srinivasa KB, Kumar L, Martin G. Should I stay or should I go: escape behaviour of Russell’s vipers, Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797) in India’s agricultural landscapes. ANIM BIOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1163/15707563-bja10072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Predation exerts a strong selective force on prey, and hence prey species have evolved a multitude of ways to escape predation. One strategy by which many mobile species escape predation is by fleeing when approached by predators. However, fleeing too early can have fitness costs. Thus, optimal escape theory suggests that escape behaviour in prey depends on the risk of being eaten and the fleeing costs. Several studies on mammals, birds and lizards lend support to this hypothesis. However, few studies have explored escape behaviour in snakes. Here, using radio telemetry to track snakes in the field, we study the escape behaviour in Russell’s vipers, a highly venomous and cryptic snake, responsible for the highest number of snakebite deaths in India. We show that escape response, i.e., the decision to stay or flee, was influenced by intrinsic factors such as the snake’s behaviour and body temperature. We also show that the flight initiation distance, the distance at which the snake flees, was mostly determined by habitat selection, i.e., the visibility of the snake and the distance to the nearest cover. Overall, we show that different factors could determine the decision to flee and when to flee. We also highlight how understanding escape response in such highly venomous, medically important yet secretive snakes could potentially help reduce human-snake encounters and mitigate the snakebite crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek P. Cyriac
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, CV Raman Rd, Bengaluru, Karnataka – 560012, India
- The Liana Trust, Sy. No. 1418/1419, Rathnapuri, Hunsur, Karnataka – 1571189, India
| | - Kiran B. Srinivasa
- Humane Society International (India), Hunsur, Karnataka – 1571189, India
| | - Lohith Kumar
- The Liana Trust, Sy. No. 1418/1419, Rathnapuri, Hunsur, Karnataka – 1571189, India
| | - Gerard Martin
- The Liana Trust, Sy. No. 1418/1419, Rathnapuri, Hunsur, Karnataka – 1571189, India
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7
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Díaz-Ricaurte JC, Guevara-Molina EC, Alves-Nunes JM, Serrano FC, Hrncir M. Linking body condition and thermal physiology in limping crickets: Does limb autotomy incur costs concerning behavioral thermal tolerance? JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 337:393-402. [PMID: 35167191 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Many ectotherms have the ability to voluntarily detach a body part, known as autotomy, usually in response to predator attacks. Autotomy can have an immediate benefit for survival, but it can also involve costs related to the individual's body condition. Even though the effects of autotomy have been studied in many ecophysiological aspects, its short-term costs on the ability to tolerate high environmental temperatures are still unexplored. Herein, we evaluated the effects of autotomy on the behavioral thermal tolerance (VTMax ) in the cricket Gryllus assimilis. We hypothesized that, due to the increased energetic costs to maintain homeostasis, autotomized crickets have a lower VTMax than intact ones. Additionally, we investigated differences in VTMax between sexes, as well as the effects of heating rates and body mass on their VTMax . Contrary to our hypothesis, we found no differences between VTMax of autotomized and intact individuals. However, we observed that females have a higher VTMax than males, regardless of their condition (i.e., autotomized and intact). Moreover, we detected significant effects of body mass and heating rate on behavioral thermal tolerances. The results of our study indicate that costs associated with limb autotomy at high environmental temperatures might be intricate and not immediately impactful. Furthermore, important aspects of reproduction and ecology might be responsible for differences in VTMax between males and females. Our results contribute to understanding the ecological and physiological aspects of ectotherms and how they respond to changing climatic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan C Díaz-Ricaurte
- Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz, Centro de Energia Nuclear na Agricultura, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia Aplicada, Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
- Semillero de Investigación en Ecofisiología y Biogeografía de Vertebrados, Grupo de investigación en Biodiversidad y Desarrollo Amazónico (BYDA), Centro de investigaciones Amazónicas Macagual-Cesar Augusto Estrada Gonzales, Universidad de la Amazonia, Florencia, Caquetá, Colombia
| | - Estefany C Guevara-Molina
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - João M Alves-Nunes
- Laboratório de Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Animal, Instituto de Biociências, Letras e Ciências Exatas, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio de Mesquita Filho", São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Filipe C Serrano
- Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Michael Hrncir
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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8
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Allan ATL, Bailey AL, Hill RA. Consistency in the flight and visual orientation distances of habituated chacma baboons after an observed leopard predation. Do flight initiation distance methods always measure perceived predation risk? Ecol Evol 2021; 11:15404-15416. [PMID: 34765186 PMCID: PMC8571578 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Flight initiation distance (FID) procedures are used to assess the risk perception animals have for threats (e.g., natural predators, hunters), but it is unclear whether these assessments remain meaningful if animals have habituated to certain human stimuli (e.g., researchers, tourists). Our previous work showed that habituated baboons displayed individually distinct and consistent responses to human approaches, a tolerance trait, but it is unknown if the trait is resilient to life-threatening scenarios. If it were consistent, it would imply FIDs might measure specific human threat perception only and not generalize to other threats such as predators when animals have experienced habituation processes. We used FID procedures to compare baseline responses to the visual orientation distance, FID, and individual tolerance estimates assessed after a leopard predation on an adult male baboon (group member). All variables were consistent despite the predation event, suggesting tolerance to observers was largely unaffected by the predation and FID procedures are unlikely to be generalizable to other threats when habituation has occurred. FID approaches could be an important tool for assessing how humans influence animal behavior across a range of contexts, but careful planning is required to understand the type of stimuli presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew T. L. Allan
- Department of AnthropologyDurham UniversityDurhamUK
- Primate and Predator ProjectLajuma Research CentreLouis TrichardtSouth Africa
| | - Annie L. Bailey
- Primate and Predator ProjectLajuma Research CentreLouis TrichardtSouth Africa
| | - Russell A. Hill
- Department of AnthropologyDurham UniversityDurhamUK
- Primate and Predator ProjectLajuma Research CentreLouis TrichardtSouth Africa
- Department of ZoologyUniversity of VendaThohoyandouSouth Africa
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9
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Verdú Ricoy J, Mashinini P, Goedhals J, Heideman N. Reproduction, sexual dimorphism and predation in Mochlus sundevallii in southern Africa (Reptilia: Sauria, Scincidae). AFRICAN ZOOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/15627020.2021.1976077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joaquín Verdú Ricoy
- Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Phomolo Mashinini
- Department of Herpetology, Ditsong Museum of Natural History, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Jacqueline Goedhals
- Department of Anatomical Pathology, University of the Free State and National Health Laboratory Service, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Neil Heideman
- Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
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10
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Panwar P, Gómez-Ruiz PA, Zipple MN, Sandoval L. Changes in escape behaviour of black iguanas (Ctenosaura similis) over an anthropogenic disturbance gradient. BEHAVIOUR 2021. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-bja10110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Studies on the impact of human activity on animal behaviour are critical for understanding the extent to which humans affect ecological dynamics. Previous studies have found that human presence alters antipredator behaviours, which can be measured by flight initiation distance (FID). We investigated escape behaviour of 96 black iguanas (Ctenosaura similis) across a gradient of human disturbance in six sites inside a protected area in Costa Rica. We used a field experiment to test for effect of human disturbance on FID. We found that individuals from higher disturbance sites had shorter FIDs, meaning that black iguanas from disturbed areas allow closer approaches. This finding is consistent with the prediction that some animals become more habituated to human presence as the degree of human disturbance increases. We propose that black iguanas’ ability to alter their behaviour in response to humans’ presence could make them especially adept at invading new environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Panwar
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Pilar Angélica Gómez-Ruiz
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, campus Morelia, México
- CONACyT-Universidad Autónoma del Carmen, Centro de Investigación de Ciencias Ambientales, Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche, México
| | | | - Luis Sandoval
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, San José, Costa Rica
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11
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Epperly HK, Clinchy M, Zanette LY, McCleery RA. Fear of large carnivores is tied to ungulate habitat use: evidence from a bifactorial experiment. Sci Rep 2021; 11:12979. [PMID: 34155290 PMCID: PMC8217516 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-92469-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The fear large carnivores inspire in large ungulates has been argued to have cascading effects down food webs. However, a direct link between ungulate habitat use and their fear of large carnivores has not been experimentally tested. To fill this critical gap, we conducted a bi-factorial experiment in an African savanna. We removed shrub cover and broadcast large carnivore vocalizations (leopard, hyena, dog) or non-threatening control vocalizations in both experimentally cleared and shrubby control sites. We recorded the proactive (frequency of visitation) and reactive (fleeing or vigilance) responses of multiple prey (impala, warthog, nyala and bushbuck). Critically, we found a significant proactive-reactive interaction. Ungulates were 47% more likely to run after hearing a predator vocalization in shrubby control sites than experimental clearings, demonstrating that ungulates perceived less fear from large carnivores in open habitat (clearings). Consistent with this finding, ungulates visited clearings 2.4 times more often than shrubby control sites and visited shrubby control sites less often at night, when large carnivores are most active. Combined with results from previous experiments demonstrating that the disproportionate use of available habitats by large ungulates can alter ecosystem properties, our experiment provides critical evidence that the fear large carnivores inspire in large ungulates can cause trophic cascades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haley K. Epperly
- grid.15276.370000 0004 1936 8091Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, School of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
| | - Michael Clinchy
- grid.39381.300000 0004 1936 8884Department of Biology, Western University, London, ON N6A 5B7 Canada
| | - Liana Y. Zanette
- grid.39381.300000 0004 1936 8884Department of Biology, Western University, London, ON N6A 5B7 Canada
| | - Robert A. McCleery
- grid.15276.370000 0004 1936 8091Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, School of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA ,grid.15276.370000 0004 1936 8091University of Florida, 110 Newins-Ziegler Hall, PO Box 110430, Gainesville, FL 32611-0430 USA
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12
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Eco-evolutionary dynamics of autotomy. THEOR ECOL-NETH 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12080-021-00507-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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13
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Whitford MD, Freymiller GA, Higham TE, Clark RW. The effects of temperature on the defensive strikes of rattlesnakes. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb223859. [PMID: 32561628 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.223859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Movements of ectotherms are constrained by their body temperature owing to the effects of temperature on muscle physiology. As physical performance often affects the outcome of predator-prey interactions, environmental temperature can influence the ability of ectotherms to capture prey and/or defend themselves against predators. However, previous research on the kinematics of ectotherms suggests that some species may use elastic storage mechanisms when attacking or defending, thereby mitigating the effects of sub-optimal temperature. Rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp.) are a speciose group of ectothermic viperid snakes that rely on crypsis, rattling and striking to deter predators. We examined the influence of body temperature on the behavior and kinematics of two rattlesnake species (Crotalus oreganus helleri and Crotalus scutulatus) when defensively striking towards a threatening stimulus. We recorded defensive strikes at body temperatures ranging from 15-35°C. We found that strike speed and speed of mouth gaping during the strike were positively correlated with temperature. We also found a marginal effect of temperature on the probability of striking, latency to strike and strike outcome. Overall, warmer snakes are more likely to strike, strike faster, open their mouth faster and reach maximum gape earlier than colder snakes. However, the effects of temperature were less than would be expected for purely muscle-driven movements. Our results suggest that, although rattlesnakes are at a greater risk of predation at colder body temperatures, their decrease in strike performance may be mitigated to some extent by employing mechanisms in addition to skeletal muscle contraction (e.g. elastic energy storage) to power strikes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malachi D Whitford
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
- Ecology Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Grace A Freymiller
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Timothy E Higham
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Rulon W Clark
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
- Chiricahua Desert Museum, Rodeo, NM 88056, USA
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14
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Fight or flight trade-offs and the defensive behaviour of the mountain katydid, Acripeza reticulata. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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15
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Ferguson SM, Gilson LN, Bateman PW. Look at the time: diel variation in the flight initiation distance of a nectarivorous bird. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-019-2757-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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16
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Emberts Z, Escalante I, Bateman PW. The ecology and evolution of autotomy. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:1881-1896. [PMID: 31240822 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Autotomy, the self-induced loss of a body part, occurs throughout Animalia. A lizard dropping its tail to escape predation is an iconic example, however, autotomy occurs in a diversity of other organisms. Octopuses can release their arms, crabs can drop their claws, and bugs can amputate their legs. The diversity of organisms that can autotomize body parts has led to a wealth of research and several taxonomically focused reviews. These reviews have played a crucial role in advancing our understanding of autotomy within their respective groups. However, because of their taxonomic focus, these reviews are constrained in their ability to enhance our understanding of autotomy. Here, we aim to synthesize research on the ecology and evolution of autotomy throughout Animalia, building a unified framework on which future studies can expand. We found that the ability to drop an appendage has evolved multiple times throughout Animalia and that once autotomy has evolved, selection appears to act on the removable appendage to increase the efficacy and/or efficiency of autotomy. This could explain why some autotomizable body parts are so elaborate (e.g. brightly coloured). We also show that there are multiple benefits, and variable costs, associated with autotomy. Given this variation, we generate an economic theory of autotomy (modified from the economic theory of escape) which makes predictions about when an individual should resort to autotomy. Finally, we show that the loss of an autotomizable appendage can have numerous consequences on population and community dynamics. By taking this broad taxonomic approach, we identified patterns of autotomy that transcend specific lineages and highlight clear directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Emberts
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, 876 Newell Drive, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Ignacio Escalante
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Policy, & Management, University of California, 140 Mulford Hall, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Philip W Bateman
- Behavioural Ecology Lab, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia
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Black KL, Fudge D, Jarvis WMC, Robinson BW. Functional plasticity in lamellar autotomy by larval damselflies in response to predatory larval dragonfly cues. Evol Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-019-09979-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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18
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Affiliation(s)
- William E. Cooper
- Department of Biology; Indiana University Purdue University Fort Wayne; Fort Wayne IN USA
| | - Diogo S. M. Samia
- Department of Ecology; Bioscience Institute; University of Sao Paulo; Sao Paulo Brazil
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Feit B, Gordon CE, Webb JK, Jessop TS, Laffan SW, Dempster T, Letnic M. Invasive cane toads might initiate cascades of direct and indirect effects in a terrestrial ecosystem. Biol Invasions 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-018-1665-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/24/2023]
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20
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Fleeing to refuge: Escape decisions in the race for life. J Theor Biol 2016; 406:129-36. [PMID: 27343624 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2016.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Economic escape theory that predicts that flight initiation distance (FID=predator-prey distance when a prey begins to flee from an approaching predator) increases as predation risk increases has been overwhelmingly supported. However, the vast majority of empirical tests have focused on effects of single predation risk factors. Even studies that have included multiple risk factors have not predicted how they jointly affect FID. I present a model that predicts joint effects of several predation risk factors that affect the outcome of a race between predator and prey to the prey's refuge. As a prey's distance to refuge and predator attack speed increase, and as the prey's location forces it to flee more toward a predator to reach refuge, FID increases. A published model proposed and experiment showed that FID is longer when prey flee directly toward than directly away from a predator to a refuge. We present a new geometric model that predicts FID for all angles between the prey's and predator's paths to refuge, distance of the prey from refuge when escape begins, predator and prey speeds, and a margin of safety allowing the prey to reach refuge before the predator. The model provides many new, testable predictions about relationships among its variables and FID. Most notably, it predicts that FID increases sigmoidally as the angle between predator and prey paths to refuge increases. Although the model is not economic (cost-benefit), we discuss its relationship to economic escape theory.
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21
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Acute inhalation toxicity of carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide revisited: Comparison of models to disentangle the concentration × time conundrum of lethality and incapacitation. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2016; 80:173-82. [PMID: 27346845 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2016.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Revised: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Contemporary emergency response planning guidelines are stratified to consider the threshold for serious toxicity and/or impairment of escape, relative to the potentially lethal level above this threshold and the lower level at which individuals should not experience or develop effects more serious than mild irritation. While harmonized testing guidelines and risk assessment paradigms are available for the quantification of thresholds for lethality or establishing no adverse effect levels, the quantification of 'impairment of escape' appears to be a more elusive goal. Approaches were explored in context with CO and HCN in past experimental combustion toxicology studies to estimate the time available for escape. This point of departure (POD) was compared with the non-lethal threshold (LC01) and one third thereof from published recent acute inhalation studies in rats examining the Cxt-matrix of both CO and HCN. The findings from this analysis suggest that the rat delivers the most consistent data. However, it remains challenging yet to bridge the behavioral variables of human behavior typical of escape to any surrogate animal model. For the asphyxiant gases examined, the PODs characterizing 'impairment of escape' were difficult to distinguish from those indicative of impending death. No specific modeled carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) level could be linked to onset of incapacitation. In summary, the higher ventilation of rats (kg body weight adjusted) renders this species even more susceptible than heavy breathing humans. LCt01 × 1/3 values derived from the comprehensive Cxt matrix of rat inhalation studies are considered to be most suitable and robust to estimate the human equivalent threshold (POD) of 'impairment of escape'.
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22
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Responses of Natricine Snakes to Predatory Threat: A Mini-Review and Research Prospectus. J HERPETOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1670/15-103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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23
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Cooper WE, Martín J. Predator-prey distance and latency to flee from an immobile predator: functional relationship and importance. Curr Zool 2016; 62:117-122. [PMID: 29491898 PMCID: PMC5804235 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zow035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
When an immobile prey has detected an immobile predator nearby, predation risk is greater when the predator is closer. Consequently, prey flee with shorter latency as standing distance (predator–prey distance when both are still) decreases. Since it was first reported in 2009, this relationship has been confirmed in the few species studied. However, little is known about the functional relationship between standing distance and latency to flee (LF). We hypothesized that LF increases as standing distance increases at short distances, but reaches a plateau at longer distances where prey can escape reliably if attacked. We simulated immobile predators by moving slowly into positions near striped plateau lizards Sceloporus virgatus, stopping and then remaining immobile, and recording LF from the stopping time. LF increased from shorter to longer standing distances in a decelerating manner. The relationship was concave downward, and LF was indistinguishable among the longer standing distance groups. Latency to flee appears to reach a plateau or approach an asymptotic value as standing distance increases. The effect size of standing distance was large, indicating that S. virgatus sensitively adjusts LF to the level of risk associated with standing distance. Relationships between risk assessment and theoretical zones associated with risk, its assessment by prey, and escape decisions are discussed. Effect sizes of standing distance were substantial to large in all studies to date, indicating that standing distance is an important predation risk factor when both predator and prey are immobile.
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Affiliation(s)
- William E Cooper
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805, USA and
| | - José Martín
- Departamento de Ecologia Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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Zhang H, Li W, Hu Y, Zhang Y. Opposite companion effect on flight initiation distance in sympatric species: plateau pika ( Ochotona curzoniae) and White-rumped Snowfinch ( Onychostruthus taczanowskii). CAN J ZOOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2015-0126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
There are many factors influencing prey’s risk perception and escape decision during predator–prey encounters. The distance at which animals move away from perceived danger (often quantified as flight initiation distance or FID) has been used by behavioral ecologists to understand the economics of antipredator behavior. Using general linear models, we investigated escape decision-making processes in plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae (Hodgson, 1858)) and White-rumped Snowfinch (Onychostruthus taczanowskii (Prjevalsky, 1876), formerly known as Montifringilla taczanowskii Przewalski, 1876) together and we found that (i) there are significant positive correlations between starting distance and FID in both species; (ii) pika escapes at a longer distance from an approaching intruder when it is far from its burrow; (iii) foraging animals tolerate closer distances than watching ones, both in pikas and in Snowfinches; (iv) conspecifics seem to have no effect on pikas’ escaping behavior, while the appearance of Snowfinches dramatically decreases the FID of pikas. On the contrary, conspecifics significantly decrease the FID of Snowfinches, while the presence of pikas has no effects. These findings provide new evidence, which are consistent with optimal escape theory. These novel results in multispecies interactions prompt us to pay attention to the potential relationship between pikas and Snowfinches, as well as the “bird–pika in one hole” phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810008, People’s Republic of China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wenjing Li
- Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810008, People’s Republic of China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yanping Hu
- Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810008, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yanming Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810008, People’s Republic of China
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Jacobson F, Garrison G, Penner J, Gebin J, Eifler M, Eifler D. Escape behaviour in the leopard lizard (Gambelia wislizenii): effects of starting distance and sex. AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2016. [DOI: 10.1163/15685381-00003054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Predation risk influences decision making, escape behaviour, and resource use. Risk assessment and behavioural responses to predation can depend on demographic and environmental factors. We studied the escape behaviour of the long-nosed leopard lizard (Gambelia wislizenii) when approached by a human predator (= “simulated predator”), analysing flight initiation distance (FID) and flight distance (FD) relative to demographic and environmental variables. Starting distance (SD) of the simulated predator and orientation of prey lizards relative to the simulated predator influenced FID, but body size of the prey lizard did not. Sex interacted with SD to affect FID. Females lengthened their FIDs as SD increased, while male FID was unrelated to SD. Flight distance increased with increasing SD. Gambelia wislizenii’s ecological role as an ambush predator may explain their escape behaviour; reproductive status potentially affected the interaction between sex and SD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Grace Garrison
- Erell Institute, 2808 Meadow Drive, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | | | | | - Maria Eifler
- Erell Institute, 2808 Meadow Drive, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Douglas Eifler
- Erell Institute, 2808 Meadow Drive, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
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26
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Møller AP. The value of a mouthful: Flight initiation distance as an opportunity cost. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1515/eje-2015-0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
AbstractFlight initiation distance of animals when approached by a potential predator reflects the risk that an individual is willing to take when the individual has to gauge the value of staying put relative to the cost of flight. I predicted that this cost–benefit balance would depend on the opportunity cost of fleeing. This opportunity cost can be estimated as the difference in flight initiation distance (FID) between an individual engaged in eating rather than just loafing. I estimated FID of 55 species of birds when approached by a human whilst eating or loafing. There was highly significant variation in difference in FID between these two situations amongst species. Species eating mobile food that is difficult to catch showed little difference in FID between the two situations, whilst species eating immobile food such as seeds had longer FID when eating than when loafing. This difference was fully attributed to differences in relative eye size, because species that had longer FIDs when foraging rather than loafing had small eyes, whilst species with long FIDs when loafing rather than foraging had large eyes. Species with long FIDs, when foraging compared to loafing, had low adult annual survival rates and vice versa. This effect was independent of whether mobile or immobile food was consumed. These findings suggest that individuals of different species adjust their FID to the probability of adult survival and also that differences in visual acuity among species as reflected by eye size linked to differences in food mobility affect the opportunity cost of risk taking.
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27
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Matsumura K, Sasaki K, Miyatake T. Correlated responses in death-feigning behavior, activity, and brain biogenic amine expression in red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum strains selected for walking distance. J ETHOL 2015; 34:97-105. [PMID: 27829699 PMCID: PMC5080323 DOI: 10.1007/s10164-015-0452-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Dispersal ability may influence antipredator and mating strategies. A previous study showed a trade-off between predation avoidance and mating success in strains of the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum selected for walking distance
. Specifically, beetles derived from strains selected for longer walking distance suffered higher predation pressure and had higher male mating success than their counterparts derived from strains selected for shorter walking distance. In the study reported here, we compared the locomotor activity, biogenic amine expression in the brain, and death-feigning behavior of the red flour beetle strains selected for walking distance. The results indicated that individuals genetically predisposed to longer walking distance had higher locomotor activity and lower intensity of death-feigning behavior than those genetically predisposed to shorter walking distance. However, no significant differences were found in the expression of biogenic amines in the brain among strains selected for walking distance, although the level of dopamine in the brain differed from that of the strains divergently selected for duration of death-feigning behavior. The relationships between walking speed, activity, death-feigning behavior, and brain biogenic amines in T. castaneum are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentarou Matsumura
- grid.261356.50000000113024472Laboratory of Evolutionary Ecology, Graduate School of Environmental and Life Science, Okayama University, Tsushima-Naka, Okayama City, Okayama Japan
| | - Ken Sasaki
- grid.412905.b0000000097459416Department of Bioresource Science, Tamagawa University, Machida, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takahisa Miyatake
- grid.261356.50000000113024472Laboratory of Evolutionary Ecology, Graduate School of Environmental and Life Science, Okayama University, Tsushima-Naka, Okayama City, Okayama Japan
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Outrun or Outmaneuver: Predator–Prey Interactions as a Model System for Integrating Biomechanical Studies in a Broader Ecological and Evolutionary Context. Integr Comp Biol 2015; 55:1188-97. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icv074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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29
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Monitoring by prey that does not reveal awareness by turning toward approaching predators. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-015-1951-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Samia DSM, Blumstein DT, Stankowich T, Cooper WE. Fifty years of chasing lizards: new insights advance optimal escape theory. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2015; 91:349-66. [PMID: 25620002 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Revised: 11/28/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses often examine data from diverse taxa to identify general patterns of effect sizes. Meta-analyses that focus on identifying generalisations in a single taxon are also valuable because species in a taxon are more likely to share similar unique constraints. We conducted a comprehensive phylogenetic meta-analysis of flight initiation distance in lizards. Flight initiation distance (FID) is a common metric used to quantify risk-taking and has previously been shown to reflect adaptive decision-making. The past decade has seen an explosion of studies focused on quantifying FID in lizards, and, because lizards occur in a wide range of habitats, are ecologically diverse, and are typically smaller and differ physiologically from the better studied mammals and birds, they are worthy of detailed examination. We found that variables that reflect the costs or benefits of flight (being engaged in social interactions, having food available) as well as certain predator effects (predator size and approach speed) had large effects on FID in the directions predicted by optimal escape theory. Variables that were associated with morphology (with the exception of crypsis) and physiology had relatively small effects, whereas habitat selection factors typically had moderate to large effect sizes. Lizards, like other taxa, are very sensitive to the costs of flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo S M Samia
- Laboratory of Theoretical Ecology and Synthesis, Federal University of Goiás, CP. 131, 74001-970 Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Daniel T Blumstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, 621 Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, U.S.A
| | - Theodore Stankowich
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, 1250 Bellflower Blvd., Long Beach, CA 90840, U.S.A
| | - William E Cooper
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46835, U.S.A
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Cooper WE, Samia DS, Blumstein DT. FEAR, Spontaneity, and Artifact in Economic Escape Theory: A Review and Prospectus. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.asb.2015.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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Cooper WE, Sherbrooke WC. FEAR and DREAD: starting distance, escape decisions and time hiding in refuge. BEHAVIOUR 2015. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-00003283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Flight initiation distance (FID = predator–prey distance when escape begins) increases as starting distance (predator–prey distance when approach begins) increases. The flush early and avoid the rush (FEAR) hypothesis proposes that this relationship exists because monitoring an approach is costly. Hypothesized causes are increase in assessed risk and decrease in obtainable benefits while monitoring as starting distance increases. We propose the delay risking emergence and avoid dying (DREAD) hypothesis: hiding time in refuge increases as starting distance increases because prey use risk assessed during approach to estimate risk upon emerging. In the lizard Callisaurus draconoides, FID increased as standardized starting distance increased at faster approach speeds, supporting the FEAR hypothesis. In its first test, the DREAD hypothesis was supported: hiding time in the lizard Sceloporus virgatus increased as standardized starting distance increased. No large benefits were attainable, suggesting that dynamic increase in assessed risk accounts for these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- William E. Cooper
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN 46805-1499, USA
| | - Wade C. Sherbrooke
- Southwestern Research Station, American Museum of Natural History, P.O. Box 16553, Portal, AZ 85632, USA
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Garrido M, Pérez-Mellado V, Cooper WE. Complex Relationships amongst Parasite Load and Escape Behaviour in an Insular Lizard. Ethology 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mario Garrido
- Department of Animal Biology; Campus Unamuno; University of Salamanca; Salamanca Spain
| | | | - William E. Cooper
- Department of Biology; Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne; Fort Wayne IN USA
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McGowan MM, Patel PD, Stroh JD, Blumstein DT. The Effect of Human Presence and Human Activity on Risk Assessment and Flight Initiation Distance in Skinks. Ethology 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn M. McGowan
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of California; Los Angeles CA USA
| | - Priya D. Patel
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of California; Los Angeles CA USA
| | - Jolie D. Stroh
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of California; Los Angeles CA USA
| | - Daniel T. Blumstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of California; Los Angeles CA USA
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35
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Bateman PW, Fleming PA. Body size and group size of Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) tadpoles influence their escape behaviour. Acta Ethol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10211-014-0201-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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36
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Binning SA, Barnes JI, Davies JN, Backwell PR, Keogh JS, Roche DG. Ectoparasites modify escape behaviour, but not performance, in a coral reef fish. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Cooper WE, Pyron RA, Garland T. Island tameness: living on islands reduces flight initiation distance. Proc Biol Sci 2014; 281:20133019. [PMID: 24403345 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2013.3019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
One of Darwin's most widely known conjectures is that prey are tame on remote islands, where mammalian predators are absent. Many species appear to permit close approach on such islands, but no comparative studies have demonstrated reduced wariness quantified as flight initiation distance (FID; i.e. predator-prey distance when the prey begins to flee) in comparison with mainland relatives. We used the phylogenetic comparative method to assess influence of distance from the mainland and island area on FID of 66 lizard species. Because body size and predator approach speed affect predation risk, we included these as independent variables. Multiple regression showed that FID decreases as distance from mainland increases and is shorter in island than mainland populations. Although FID increased as area increased in some models, collinearity made it difficult to separate effects of area from distance and island occupancy. FID increases as SVL increases and approach speed increases; these effects are statistically independent of effects of distance to mainland and island occupancy. Ordinary least-squares models fit the data better than phylogenetic regressions, indicating little or no phylogenetic signal in residual FID after accounting for the independent variables. Our results demonstrate that island tameness is a real phenomenon in lizards.
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Affiliation(s)
- William E Cooper
- Department of Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Fort Wayne, , Fort Wayne, IN 46835, USA, Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, , Washington, DC 20052, USA, Department of Biology, University of California, , Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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Cooper WE, Blumstein DT. Novel effects of monitoring predators on costs of fleeing and not fleeing explain flushing early in economic escape theory. Behav Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/art083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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39
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Gregory PT. Once Bitten, Twice Shy: Does Previous Experience Influence Behavioural Decisions of Snakes in Encounters with Predators? Ethology 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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40
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Bateman PW, Fleming PA. The influence of web silk decorations on fleeing behaviour of Florida orb weaver spiders, Argiope florida (Aranaeidae). CAN J ZOOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2012-0312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Spider web silk decorations may (i) act to attract prey, (ii) be decoys for predators, and (iii) make the web visible to prevent larger animals from destroying them. To disentangle the last two hypotheses, we examined the fleeing response and flight initiation distance (FID) of the Florida orb weaver spider (Argiope florida Chamberlin and Ivie, 1944). Spiders were approached in one of two manners: (1) a “predatory” one mimicking a bird and (2) a “looming” approach mimicking the approach of a large animal. We predicted that if silk decorations had an antipredator function, then the extent of silk decoration would influence whether spiders fled from the predatory approach. However, if the function was primarily a signal to large animals, then all spiders would flee the looming approach, but FID would be influenced by the extent of silk decoration. We found no influence of silk decorations on fleeing behaviour and FID of spiders. Spider fleeing behaviour was, however, influenced by height of the web from the ground. The effects of web height might reflect an adaptive response to a more exposed position and therefore could support either of the two hypotheses tested; however, we have no evidence supporting the role of silk decorations on antipredator responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip W. Bateman
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, South Africa
| | - Patricia A. Fleming
- Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Perth, WA 6150, Australia
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Guay PJ, Lorenz RDA, Robinson RW, Symonds MRE, Weston MA. Distance from Water, Sex and Approach Direction Influence Flight Distances Among Habituated Black Swans. Ethology 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick-Jean Guay
- Institute for Sustainability and Innovation; Victoria University; St-Albans; VIC; Australia
| | - Rachael D. A. Lorenz
- Applied Ecology Research Group, College of Engineering and Science; Victoria University; St-Albans; VIC; Australia
| | | | - Matthew R. E. Symonds
- Centre for Integrative Ecology; School of Life and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science; Engineering and the Built Environment; Deakin University; Burwood; VIC; Australia
| | - Michael A. Weston
- Centre for Integrative Ecology; School of Life and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science; Engineering and the Built Environment; Deakin University; Burwood; VIC; Australia
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Ontogenetic switch between alternative antipredatory strategies in the leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius): defensive threat versus escape. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-013-1536-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Pérez-Cembranos A, Pérez-Mellado V, Cooper WE. Predation Risk and Opportunity Cost of Fleeing While Foraging on Plants Influence Escape Decisions of an Insular Lizard. Ethology 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Pérez-Cembranos
- Department of Animal Biology; University of Salamanca; Facultad de Farmacia; Salamanca; Spain
| | - Valentín Pérez-Mellado
- Department of Animal Biology; University of Salamanca; Facultad de Farmacia; Salamanca; Spain
| | - William E. Cooper
- Department of Biology; Indiana University Purdue University Fort Wayne; Fort Wayne; IN; USA
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Cooper WE, Sherbrooke WC. Risk and cost of immobility in the presence of an immobile predator. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-013-1477-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Dumont F, Pasquaretta C, Réale D, Bogliani G, von Hardenberg A. Flight Initiation Distance and Starting Distance: Biological Effect or Mathematical Artefact? Ethology 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- François Dumont
- Département des sciences biologiques, Canada Research Chair in Behavioural Ecology; Université du Québec à Montréal; Montréal; QC; Canada
| | - Cristian Pasquaretta
- DISTA - Department of Earth and Environmental Science, Zoology section; Università di Pavia; Pavia; Italy
| | - Denis Réale
- Département des sciences biologiques, Canada Research Chair in Behavioural Ecology; Université du Québec à Montréal; Montréal; QC; Canada
| | - Giuseppe Bogliani
- DISTA - Department of Earth and Environmental Science, Zoology section; Università di Pavia; Pavia; Italy
| | - Achaz von Hardenberg
- Alpine Wildlife Research Centre; Gran Paradiso National Park; Valsavarenche; Italy
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Camp MJ, Rachlow JL, Woods BA, Johnson TR, Shipley LA. When to Run and When to Hide: The Influence of Concealment, Visibility, and Proximity to Refugia on Perceptions of Risk. Ethology 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Meghan J. Camp
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences; University of Idaho; Moscow; ID; USA
| | - Janet L. Rachlow
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences; University of Idaho; Moscow; ID; USA
| | - Bonnie A. Woods
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences; University of Idaho; Moscow; ID; USA
| | | | - Lisa A. Shipley
- School of the Environment; Washington State University; Pullman; WA; USA
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Cooper Jr WE, Pérez-Mellado V. Historical influence of predation pressure on escape by Podarcis lizards in the Balearic Islands. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01933.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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49
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Cooper WE, López P, Martín J, Pérez-Mellado V. Latency to flee from an immobile predator: effects of predation risk and cost of immobility for the prey. Behav Ecol 2012. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/ars032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Javůrková V, Šizling AL, Kreisinger J, Albrecht T. An alternative theoretical approach to escape decision-making: the role of visual cues. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32522. [PMID: 22427851 PMCID: PMC3299677 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Escape enables prey to avoid an approaching predator. The escape decision-making process has traditionally been interpreted using theoretical models that consider ultimate explanations based on the cost/benefit paradigm. Ultimate approaches, however, suffer from inseparable extra-assumptions due to an inability to accurately parameterize the model's variables and their interactive relationships. In this study, we propose a mathematical model that uses intensity of predator-mediated visual stimuli as a basic cue for the escape response. We consider looming stimuli (i.e. expanding retinal image of the moving predator) as a cue to flight initiation distance (FID; distance at which escape begins) of incubating Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos). We then examine the relationship between FID, vegetation cover and directness of predator trajectory, and fit the resultant model to experimental data. As predicted by the model, vegetation concealment and directness of predator trajectory interact, with FID decreasing with increased concealment during a direct approach toward prey, but not during a tangential approach. Thus, we show that a simple proximate expectation, which involves only visual processing of a moving predator, may explain interactive effects of environmental and predator-induced variables on an escape response. We assume that our proximate approach, which offers a plausible and parsimonious explanation for variation in FID, may serve as an evolutionary background for traditional, ultimate explanations and should be incorporated into interpretation of escape behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Javůrková
- Department of Zoology, Biodiversity Research Group, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic.
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