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Hegyi G, Laczi M, Herényi M, Markó G, Nagy G, Rosivall B, Szász E, Török J. Functional integration of multiple sexual ornaments: signal coherence and sexual selection. Am Nat 2022; 200:486-505. [DOI: 10.1086/720620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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2
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Těšický M, Krajzingrová T, Eliáš J, Velová H, Svobodová J, Bauerová P, Albrecht T, Vinkler M. Inter-annual repeatability and age-dependent changes in plasma testosterone levels in a longitudinally monitored free-living passerine bird. Oecologia 2021; 198:53-66. [PMID: 34800165 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-021-05077-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
While seasonal trends in testosterone levels are known from cross-cohort studies, data on testosterone inter-annual individual repeatability in wild birds are rare. Also, our understanding of hormonal age-dependent changes in testosterone levels is limited. We assessed plasma testosterone levels in 105 samples originating from 49 repeatedly captured free-living great tits (Parus major) sampled during the nesting to investigate their relative long-term repeatability and within-individual changes. Furthermore, we examined the inter-annual repeatability of condition-related traits (carotenoid- and melanin-based plumage ornamentation, ptilochronological feather growth rate, body mass, and haematological heterophil/lymphocyte ratio) and their relationships to testosterone levels. We show that testosterone levels are inter-annually repeatable in females, with a non-significant pattern in males, both in absolute values and individual ranks (indicating the maintenance of relative status in a population). In males, we found a quadratic dependence of testosterone levels on age, with a peak in midlife. In contrast, female testosterone levels showed no age-dependent trends. The inter-annual repeatability of condition-related traits ranged from zero to moderate and was mostly unrelated to plasma testosterone concentrations. However, males with elevated testosterone had significantly higher carotenoid-pigmented yellow plumage brightness, a trait presumably involved in mating. Showing inter-annual repeatability in testosterone levels, this research opens the way to further understanding the causes of variation in condition-related traits. Based on a longitudinal dataset, this study demonstrates that male plasma testosterone undergoes age-related changes that may regulate resource allocation. Our results thus suggest that, unlike females, male birds undergo hormonal senescence similar to mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Těšický
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Tereza Krajzingrová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Eliáš
- Department of Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Hana Velová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Svobodová
- Department of Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Bauerová
- Department of Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Prague, Czech Republic.,Division of Air Quality, Czech Hydrometeorological Institute, Tušimice Observatory, Tušimice 6, 432 01, Kadaň, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Albrecht
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, Czech Republic.,Institute of Vertebrate Biology, v.v.i., The Czech Academy of Sciences, Květná 8, 603 65, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Vinkler
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, Czech Republic
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Fernández-Eslava B, Alonso D, Alonso-Alvarez C. An age-related decline in the expression of a red carotenoid-based ornament in wild birds. Evolution 2021; 75:3142-3153. [PMID: 34643274 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The past decades have provided valuable information on how animals age in the wild. However, examples of male reproductive senescence are scarce. In particular, few studies have described an age-related decline in the expression of conspicuous traits influencing mating success. Red ornaments could be good candidates to detect this decline because their expression may depend on the availability of pigments (carotenoids) related to oxidative stress, the latter frequently linked to senescence. Furthermore, it has been argued that efficient mitochondrial metabolism is key to express red carotenoid-based ornaments, and mitochondrial dysfunction is usually associated with senescence. We studied the age-linked expression of a red carotenoid-based trait: the yellow-to-red plumage coloration of male common crossbills (Loxia curvirostra). This coloration has recently been experimentally related to mitochondrial function. Here, we analyzed longitudinal plumage coloration data obtained throughout 28 years in free-living birds. We detected an initial increase in redness during the first 2 years of life and a subsequent decline. The relationship between color and age was unrelated to within-individual body mass variability. As far as we know, this is the first demonstration of an age-related ketocarotenoid-based color decrease detected by simultaneously testing within- and between-individual variability in wild animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Fernández-Eslava
- Department of Environmental Biology, Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - D Alonso
- Department of Ornithology, Aranzadi Sciences Society, Donostia-S. Sebastián, Spain
| | - C Alonso-Alvarez
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
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4
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Grunst ML, Grunst AS, Pinxten R, Eens M. Anthropogenic noise is associated with telomere length and carotenoid-based coloration in free-living nestling songbirds. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 260:114032. [PMID: 32006886 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Growing evidence suggests that anthropogenic noise has deleterious effects on the behavior and physiology of free-living animals. These effects may be particularly pronounced early in life, when developmental trajectories are sensitive to stressors, yet studies investigating developmental effects of noise exposure in free-living populations remain scarce. To elucidate the effects of noise exposure during development, we examined whether noise exposure is associated with shorter telomeres, duller carotenoid-based coloration and reduced body mass in nestlings of a common urban bird, the great tit (Parus major). We also assessed how the noise environment is related to reproductive success. We obtained long-term measurements of the noise environment, over a ∼24-h period, and characterized both the amplitude (measured by LAeq, LA90, LA10, LAmax) and variance in noise levels, since more stochastic, as well as louder, noise regimes might be more likely to induce stress. In our urban population, noise levels varied substantially, with louder, but less variable, noise characteristic of areas adjacent to a highway. Noise levels were also highly repeatable, suggesting that individuals experience consistent differences in noise exposure. The amplitude of noise near nest boxes was associated with shorter telomeres among smaller, but not larger, brood members. In addition, carotenoid chroma and hue were positively associated with variance in average and maximum noise levels, and average reflectance was negatively associated with variance in background noise. Independent of noise, hue was positively related to telomere length. Nestling mass and reproductive success were unaffected by noise exposure. Results indicate that multiple dimensions of the noise environment, or factors associated with the noise environment, could affect the phenotype of developing organisms, that noise exposure, or correlated variables, might have the strongest effects on sensitive groups of individuals, and that carotenoid hue could serve as a signal of early-life telomere length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa L Grunst
- Department of Biology, Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Andrea S Grunst
- Department of Biology, Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Rianne Pinxten
- Department of Biology, Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium; Faculty of Social Sciences, Antwerp School of Education, Research Group Didactica, University of Antwerp, 2000, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marcel Eens
- Department of Biology, Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium
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Grunst ML, Grunst AS, Pinxten R, Bervoets L, Eens M. Carotenoid- but not melanin-based plumage coloration is negatively related to metal exposure and proximity to the road in an urban songbird. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 256:113473. [PMID: 31679871 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Rapid urbanization is a global phenomenon that is increasingly exposing organisms to novel stressors. These novel stressors can affect diverse aspects of organismal function, including development of condition-dependent ornaments, which play critical roles in social and sexual selection. We investigated the relationship between metal pollution, proximity to roads, and carotenoid- and melanin-based plumage coloration in a common songbird, the great tit (Parus major). We studied populations located across a well-characterized metal pollution gradient and surrounded by roadway networks. Metal exposure and road-associated pollution could reduce carotenoid-based pigmentation by inducing oxidative stress or affecting habitat quality, but metals could also enhance melanin-based pigmentation, through effects on melanogenesis and testosterone concentrations. Using a large sample size (N > 500), we found that birds residing close to a point source for metals had reduced ultraviolet chroma, a component of carotenoid-based pigmentation. Moreover, birds with high feather metal concentrations had lower carotenoid chroma, hue, and ultraviolet chroma, with effects modified by age class. Birds residing closer to roads also had lower carotenoid chroma and hue. Melanin-based pigmentation showed high between-year repeatability, and no association with anthropogenic pollution. Results suggest that carotenoid-, but not melanin-, based pigmentation is negatively affected by multiple anthropogenic stressors. We are the first to demonstrate a negative association between roads and a plumage-based signaling trait, which could have important implications for sexual signaling dynamics in urban landscapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa L Grunst
- Department of Biology, Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Andrea S Grunst
- Department of Biology, Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Rianne Pinxten
- Department of Biology, Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium; Faculty of Social Sciences, Didactica Research Group, University of Antwerp, 2000, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Lieven Bervoets
- Department of Biology, Systemic Physiological and Ecotoxicological Research Group, University of Antwerp, 2020, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marcel Eens
- Department of Biology, Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium
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Briolat ES, Burdfield‐Steel ER, Paul SC, Rönkä KH, Seymoure BM, Stankowich T, Stuckert AMM. Diversity in warning coloration: selective paradox or the norm? Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:388-414. [PMID: 30152037 PMCID: PMC6446817 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Aposematic theory has historically predicted that predators should select for warning signals to converge on a single form, as a result of frequency-dependent learning. However, widespread variation in warning signals is observed across closely related species, populations and, most problematically for evolutionary biologists, among individuals in the same population. Recent research has yielded an increased awareness of this diversity, challenging the paradigm of signal monomorphy in aposematic animals. Here we provide a comprehensive synthesis of these disparate lines of investigation, identifying within them three broad classes of explanation for variation in aposematic warning signals: genetic mechanisms, differences among predators and predator behaviour, and alternative selection pressures upon the signal. The mechanisms producing warning coloration are also important. Detailed studies of the genetic basis of warning signals in some species, most notably Heliconius butterflies, are beginning to shed light on the genetic architecture facilitating or limiting key processes such as the evolution and maintenance of polymorphisms, hybridisation, and speciation. Work on predator behaviour is changing our perception of the predator community as a single homogenous selective agent, emphasising the dynamic nature of predator-prey interactions. Predator variability in a range of factors (e.g. perceptual abilities, tolerance to chemical defences, and individual motivation), suggests that the role of predators is more complicated than previously appreciated. With complex selection regimes at work, polytypisms and polymorphisms may even occur in Müllerian mimicry systems. Meanwhile, phenotypes are often multifunctional, and thus subject to additional biotic and abiotic selection pressures. Some of these selective pressures, primarily sexual selection and thermoregulation, have received considerable attention, while others, such as disease risk and parental effects, offer promising avenues to explore. As well as reviewing the existing evidence from both empirical studies and theoretical modelling, we highlight hypotheses that could benefit from further investigation in aposematic species. Finally by collating known instances of variation in warning signals, we provide a valuable resource for understanding the taxonomic spread of diversity in aposematic signalling and with which to direct future research. A greater appreciation of the extent of variation in aposematic species, and of the selective pressures and constraints which contribute to this once-paradoxical phenomenon, yields a new perspective for the field of aposematic signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle S. Briolat
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterPenryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FEU.K.
| | - Emily R. Burdfield‐Steel
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskylä, 40014Finland
| | - Sarah C. Paul
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterPenryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FEU.K.
- Department of Chemical EcologyBielefeld UniversityUniversitätsstraße 25, 33615, BielefeldGermany
| | - Katja H. Rönkä
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskylä, 40014Finland
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental SciencesUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinki, 00014Finland
| | - Brett M. Seymoure
- Department of BiologyColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCO 80525U.S.A.
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation BiologyColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCO 80525U.S.A.
| | - Theodore Stankowich
- Department of Biological SciencesCalifornia State UniversityLong BeachCA 90840U.S.A.
| | - Adam M. M. Stuckert
- Department of BiologyEast Carolina University1000 E Fifth St, GreenvilleNC 27858U.S.A.
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Bonnaffé W, Martin M, Mugabo M, Meylan S, Le Galliard J. Ontogenetic trajectories of body coloration reveal its function as a multicomponent nonsenescent signal. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:12299-12307. [PMID: 30619546 PMCID: PMC6308879 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The understanding of developmental patterns of body coloration is challenging because of the multicomponent nature of color signals and the multiple selective pressures acting upon them, which further depend on the sex of the bearer and area of display. Pigmentary colors are thought to be strongly involved in sexual selection, while structural colors are thought to generally associate with conspecifics interactions and improve the discrimination of pigmentary colors. Yet, it remains unclear whether age dependency in each color component is consistent with their potential function. Here, we address lifelong ontogenetic variation in three color components (i.e. UV, pigmentary, and skin background colors) in a birth cohort of common lizards Zootoca vivipara across three ventral body regions (i.e. throat, chest, and belly). All three color components developed sexual dichromatism, with males displaying stronger pigmentary and UV colors but weaker skin background coloration than females. The development of color components led to a stronger sexual dichromatism on the concealed ventral region than on the throat. No consistent signs of late-life decay in color components were found except for a deceleration of UV reflectance increase with age on the throat of males. These results suggest that body color components in common lizards are primarily nonsenescent sexual signals, but that the balance between natural and sexual selection may be altered by the conspicuousness of the area of display. These results further support the view that skin coloration is a composite trait constituted of multiple color components conveying multiple signals depending on age, sex, and body location.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willem Bonnaffé
- UPMC Univ Paris 06CNRSIRDINRAInstitut D’écologie et des Sciences de l'environnement (iEES)Sorbonne UniversitésParisFrance
- Département de BiologieEcole Normale SupérieurePSL Research UniversityParisFrance
| | - Mélissa Martin
- UPMC Univ Paris 06CNRSIRDINRAInstitut D’écologie et des Sciences de l'environnement (iEES)Sorbonne UniversitésParisFrance
| | - Marianne Mugabo
- UPMC Univ Paris 06CNRSIRDINRAInstitut D’écologie et des Sciences de l'environnement (iEES)Sorbonne UniversitésParisFrance
- School of BiologyFaculty of Biological SciencesUniversity of LeedsLeedsUK
| | - Sandrine Meylan
- UPMC Univ Paris 06CNRSIRDINRAInstitut D’écologie et des Sciences de l'environnement (iEES)Sorbonne UniversitésParisFrance
- Paris‐Sorbonne Univ Paris 04ESPE de l'académie de ParisSorbonne UniversitésParisFrance
| | - Jean‐François Le Galliard
- UPMC Univ Paris 06CNRSIRDINRAInstitut D’écologie et des Sciences de l'environnement (iEES)Sorbonne UniversitésParisFrance
- Centre de Recherche en Écologie Expérimentale et Prédictive (CEREEP‐Ecotron IleDeFrance)Ecole Normale SupérieureCNRSUMS 3194PSL Research UniversitySaint‐Pierre‐lès‐NemoursFrance
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Turčoková L, Chutný B, Pavel V, Svoboda A, Osiejuk TS. Older is better? Age-related variation in ornamental and breeding traits in bluethroats, Luscinia s. svecica. FOLIA ZOOLOGICA 2018. [DOI: 10.25225/fozo.v67.i2.a2.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Turčoková
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Natural Science Comenius University, Bratislava, Ilkovičova 6, Mly
| | - Bohumír Chutný
- Department of Zoology and Laboratory of Ornithology, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, Tř. Svo
| | - Václav Pavel
- Department of Zoology and Laboratory of Ornithology, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, Tř. Svo
| | - Aleš Svoboda
- Department of Zoology and Laboratory of Ornithology, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, Tř. Svo
| | - Tomasz S. Osiejuk
- Department of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mick
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Grunst AS, Grunst ML, Rathbun NA, Hubbard JK, Safran RJ, Gonser RA, Tuttle EM. Disruptive selection on plumage coloration across genetically determined morphs. Anim Behav 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Friesen CR, Wilson MR, Rollings N, Sudyka J, Whittington CM, Giraudeau M, Olsson M. Conditional Handicaps in Exuberant Lizards: Bright Color in Aggressive Males Is Correlated with High Levels of Free Radicals. Front Ecol Evol 2017. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2017.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
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Cain KE, Langmore NE. Female song and aggression show contrasting relationships to reproductive success when habitat quality differs. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-016-2192-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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12
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Grunst AS, Grunst ML. Context-dependent relationships between multiple sexual pigments and paternal effort. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Grunst ML, Grunst AS, Parker CE, Romero LM, Rotenberry JT. Pigment-specific relationships between feather corticosterone concentrations and sexual coloration. Behav Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/aru210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
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14
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Hegyi G, Laczi M, Nagy G, Szász E, Kötél D, Török J. Stable correlation structure among multiple plumage colour traits: can they work as a single signal? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gergely Hegyi
- Behavioural Ecology Group; Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology; Eötvös Loránd University; Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C H1117 Budapest Hungary
| | - Miklós Laczi
- Behavioural Ecology Group; Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology; Eötvös Loránd University; Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C H1117 Budapest Hungary
| | - Gergely Nagy
- Behavioural Ecology Group; Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology; Eötvös Loránd University; Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C H1117 Budapest Hungary
| | - Eszter Szász
- Behavioural Ecology Group; Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology; Eötvös Loránd University; Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C H1117 Budapest Hungary
| | - Dóra Kötél
- Behavioural Ecology Group; Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology; Eötvös Loránd University; Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C H1117 Budapest Hungary
| | - János Török
- Behavioural Ecology Group; Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology; Eötvös Loránd University; Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C H1117 Budapest Hungary
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Grunst AS, Grunst ML. Multiple sexual pigments, assortative social pairing, and genetic paternity in the yellow warbler (Setophaga petechia). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-014-1752-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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