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Tan M, Zhang S, Stevens M, Li D, Tan EJ. Antipredator defences in motion: animals reduce predation risks by concealing or misleading motion signals. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:778-796. [PMID: 38174819 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Motion is a crucial part of the natural world, yet our understanding of how animals avoid predation whilst moving remains rather limited. Although several theories have been proposed for how antipredator defence may be facilitated during motion, there is often a lack of supporting empirical evidence, or conflicting findings. Furthermore, many studies have shown that motion often 'breaks' camouflage, as sudden movement can be detected even before an individual is recognised. Whilst some static camouflage strategies may conceal moving animals to a certain extent, more emphasis should be given to other modes of camouflage and related defences in the context of motion (e.g. flicker fusion camouflage, active motion camouflage, motion dazzle, and protean motion). Furthermore, when motion is involved, defence strategies are not necessarily limited to concealment. An animal can also rely on motion to mislead predators with regards to its trajectory, location, size, colour pattern, or even identity. In this review, we discuss the various underlying antipredator strategies and the mechanisms through which they may be linked to motion, conceptualising existing empirical and theoretical studies from two perspectives - concealing and misleading effects. We also highlight gaps in our understanding of these antipredator strategies, and suggest possible methodologies for experimental designs/test subjects (i.e. prey and/or predators) and future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Shichang Zhang
- Centre for Behavioural Ecology & Evolution, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, Hubei, China
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Daiqin Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Centre for Behavioural Ecology & Evolution, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, Hubei, China
| | - Eunice J Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Division of Science, Yale-NUS College, 16 College Avenue West, Singapore, 138527, Singapore
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de Alcantara Viana JV, Vieira C, Duarte RC, Romero GQ. Predator responses to prey camouflage strategies: a meta-analysis. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220980. [PMID: 36100020 PMCID: PMC9470275 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Although numerous studies about camouflage have been conducted in the last few decades, there is still a significant gap in our knowledge about the magnitude of protective value of different camouflage strategies in prey detection and survival. Furthermore, the functional significance of several camouflage strategies remains controversial. Here we carried out a comprehensive meta-analysis including comparisons of different camouflage strategies as well as predator and prey types, considering two response variables: mean predator search time (ST) (63 studies) and predator attack rate (AR) of camouflaged prey (28 studies). Overall, camouflage increased the predator ST by 62.56% and decreased the AR of prey by 27.34%. Masquerade was the camouflage strategy that most increased predator ST (295.43%). Background matching and disruptive coloration did not differ from each other. Motion camouflage did not increase ST but decreases AR on prey. We found no evidence that eyespot increases ST and decreases AR by predators. The different types of predators did not differ from each other, but caterpillars were the type of prey that most influenced the magnitude of camouflage's effect. We highlight the potential evolutionary mechanisms that led camouflage to be a highly effective anti-predatory adaptation, as well as potential discrepancies or redundancies among strategies, predator and prey types.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Vitor de Alcantara Viana
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Instituto de Biologia, Laboratório de Interações Multitróficas e Biodiversidade, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
- Laboratório de Interações Multitróficas e Biodiversidade, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), CP 6109, CEP 13083-970 Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Camila Vieira
- Departamento de Ciências Básicas, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), campus de Pirassununga, CEP 13635-900 Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rafael Campos Duarte
- Universidade Federal do ABC, CEP 09606-045 São Bernardo do Campo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Gustavo Quevedo Romero
- Laboratório de Interações Multitróficas e Biodiversidade, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), CP 6109, CEP 13083-970 Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
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Miranda RB, Klaczko J, Tonini JF, Brandão RA. Escaping from predators: a review of Neotropical lizards defence traits. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2022.2082538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rogério B. Miranda
- Laboratório de Fauna e Unidades de Conservação, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília (DF), Brazil
| | - Julia Klaczko
- Laboratório de Anatomia Comparada de Vertebrados, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília (DF), Brazil
| | - João F.R. Tonini
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge (MA), USA
| | - Reuber Albuquerque Brandão
- Laboratório de Fauna e Unidades de Conservação, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília (DF), Brazil
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Pohl S, Bungum HZ, Lee KEM, Sani MAB, Poh YH, Wahab RBHA, Norma-Rashid Y, Tan EJ. Age and Appearance Shape Behavioral Responses of Phasmids in a Dynamic Environment. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.767940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although morphological adaptations leading to crypsis or mimicry have been studied extensively, their interaction with particular behaviors to avoid detection or recognition is understudied. Yet animal behaviors interact with morphology to reduce detection risk, and the level of protection conferred likely changes according to the surrounding environment. Apart from providing a locational cue for predators, prey motion can also serve as concealing behavior in a dynamic environment to prevent detection by potential predators or prey. Phasmids are conventionally known to rely on their adaptive resemblance to plant parts for protection, and this resemblance may vary across life stages and species. However, little is known about how their behaviors interact with their appearance and their environment. We investigated two species of phasmids with varying morphology and color patterns at different ontogenetic stages and examined their behavioral responses to a wind stimulus as a proxy for a dynamic environment. While adult behaviors were mostly species-specific, behavioral responses of nymphs varied with appearance and environmental condition. Display of different behaviors classified as revealing was positively correlated, while the display of concealing behaviors, except for swaying, was mostly negatively correlated with other behaviors. Exhibition of specific behaviors varied with appearance and environmental condition, suggesting that these behavioral responses could help reduce detection or recognition cues. We discuss the differences in behavioral responses in the context of how the behaviors could reveal or conceal the phasmids from potential predators. Our results provide a novel investigation into adaptive resemblance strategies of phasmids through the interaction of behavior and morphology, and highlight the importance of considering the effects of dynamic environments on sending and receiving cues.
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Tan EJ, Elgar MA. Motion: enhancing signals and concealing cues. Biol Open 2021; 10:271863. [PMID: 34414408 PMCID: PMC8411570 DOI: 10.1242/bio.058762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal colour patterns remain a lively focus of evolutionary and behavioural ecology, despite the considerable conceptual and technical developments over the last four decades. Nevertheless, our current understanding of the function and efficacy of animal colour patterns remains largely shaped by a focus on stationary animals, typically in a static background. Yet, this rarely reflects the natural world: most animals are mobile in their search for food and mates, and their surrounding environment is usually dynamic. Thus, visual signalling involves not only animal colour patterns, but also the patterns of animal motion and behaviour, often in the context of a potentially dynamic background. While motion can reveal information about the signaller by attracting attention or revealing signaller attributes, motion can also be a means of concealing cues, by reducing the likelihood of detection (motion camouflage, motion masquerade and flicker-fusion effect) or the likelihood of capture following detection (motion dazzle and confusion effect). The interaction between the colour patterns of the animal and its local environment is further affected by the behaviour of the individual. Our review details how motion is intricately linked to signalling and suggests some avenues for future research. This Review has an associated Future Leader to Watch interview with the first author. Summary: While motion can reveal information about the signaller, motion can also be a means of concealing cues by reducing the likelihood of detection or the likelihood of capture following detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunice J Tan
- Division of Science, Yale-NUS College, Singapore 138527, Singapore
| | - Mark A Elgar
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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Affiliation(s)
- I. C. Cuthill
- School of Biological Sciences University of Bristol Bristol UK
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Gontijo LM. Female treehoppers camouflage behaviour is evidenced during oviposition on wild shrubs. J NAT HIST 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2019.1629660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lessando M. Gontijo
- Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Federal University of Viçosa, Campus Florestal, MG, Brazil
- Department of Management and Conservation of Natural and Agricultural Ecosystems, Federal University of Viçosa, Campus Florestal, MG, Brazil
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Brunyé TT, Martis SB, Kirejczyk JA, Rock K. Camouflage pattern features interact with movement speed to determine human target detectability. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2019; 77:50-57. [PMID: 30832778 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2019.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Applied ergonomics research examines not only the fit, form and function of military uniforms, but also their ability to effectively camouflage personnel as they perform job-related tasks. Many of these job-related tasks involve moving through environments, but existing literature examining camouflage effectiveness often assumes that movement effectively "breaks" even the best camouflage patterns, rendering them of limited utility for reducing the visual signature of a moving target. However, recent research demonstrates that animals equipped with adaptive camouflage change their patterning in predictable ways during movement and this adaptation decreases detectability, suggesting that uniform patterning may still hold value for reducing conspicuity during movement. The present experiment examined whether three visual pattern characteristics, local contrast, orientation, and spatial frequency, would influence the detectability of a moving human target. Participants attempted to detect and localize a simulated human target moving across a background scene, and a factorial design varied target movement speed, and the local contrast, spatial frequency, and orientation of its camouflage patterning. Results showed that target detectability was strongly influenced by target movement rate, pattern local contrast, and pattern spatial frequency, and these effects persisted even under conditions of very fast movement. Importantly, we found that the effect of local contrast was most robust under conditions of movement, suggesting its importance for reducing detectability of moving personnel. We conclude that movement is not always sufficient to break the concealment offered by a pattern with low contrast and a spatial frequency match with its background. Results are discussed in the context of visual processing theories and the application of these findings to the design and development of static and adaptive camouflage patterns for military personnel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tad T Brunyé
- Center for Applied Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Medford, MA, USA; U.S. Army Natick Soldier Research, Development, and Engineering Center, Natick, MA, USA; Tufts University, Department of Psychology, Medford, MA, USA.
| | - Shaina B Martis
- Center for Applied Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Medford, MA, USA
| | - John A Kirejczyk
- U.S. Army Natick Soldier Research, Development, and Engineering Center, Natick, MA, USA
| | - Kathryn Rock
- U.S. Army Natick Soldier Research, Development, and Engineering Center, Natick, MA, USA
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Matchette SR, Cuthill IC, Scott-Samuel NE. Concealment in a dynamic world: dappled light and caustics mask movement. Anim Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Murali G. Now you see me, now you don't: dynamic flash coloration as an antipredator strategy in motion. Anim Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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