Efficacy and plasma levels of ropivacaine for children: controlled regional analgesia following lower limb surgery

Bilateral ultrasound-guided thoracic erector spinae plane blocks using a programmed intermittent bolus improve opioid-sparing postoperative analgesia in pediatric patients after open cardiac surgery: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Background

Postoperative pain after pediatric cardiac surgery is usually treated with intravenous opioids. Recently, the focus has been on postoperative regional analgesia with the introduction of ultrasound-guided erector spinae plane blocks (ESPBs). We hypothesized that bilateral ESPB with a programmed intermittent bolus (PIB) regimen decreases postoperative morphine consumption at 48 hours and improves analgesia in children who undergo cardiac surgery.

Methods

This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study comprised 50 children who underwent cardiac surgery through midline sternotomy. The patients were allocated randomly into two groups: ultrasound-guided bilateral ESPB at the level of T3–T4 transverse process then PIB with saline infusion (group 1, n=23) or PIB with 0.2% ropivacaine (group 2, n=27). Intravenous morphine at 30 µg/kg/hour was used as rescue analgesia. Postoperative pain was assessed using the COMFORT-B score for extubation, drain removal, and mobilization, and the FLACC (Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability) scale at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 36, and 48 hours after surgery. Adverse events were noted.

Results

The total dose of morphine in 48 hours was significantly decreased in patients receiving a bilateral ESPB with ropivacaine (120±320 µg/kg) compared with patients with saline infusion (512±560 µg/kg; p=0.03). Fourteen per cent of patients required rescue analgesia with morphine in group 2 compared with 41% in group 1 (p=0.05). The patients in group 2 demonstrated significantly reduced COMFORT-B scores at extubation, drain removal, and mobilization compared with those in group 1 and had reduced FLACC scale levels at 20 and 24 hours postoperatively (p=0.05 and p=0.001, respectively). No differences were reported for extubation and drain removal times or for length of hospital stay. In addition, vomiting episodes were decreased in group 2 (p=0.01).

Conclusions

In pediatric cardiac surgery, the results of this study confirm our hypothesis that bilateral ESPB analgesia with ropivacaine decreases the postoperative morphine consumption at 48 hours and demonstrates better postoperative analgesia compared with a control group.

Trial registration numberNCT03593642.

The Safety and Efficacy of the Continuous Peripheral Nerve Block in Postoperative Analgesia of Pediatric Patients

Postoperative analgesia is imperative in the youngest patients. Pain, especially if experienced during childhood, has numerous adverse effects—from psychological, through complications of the underlying disease (prolonged treatment, hospital stay, and increased costs of the treatment) to an increase in the incidence of death due to the onset of the systemic inflammatory response. Peripheral blocks provide analgesia for 12–16 h, and are safer due to rare side effects that are easier to treat. The continuous peripheral block (CPNB) has been increasingly used in recent years for complete and prolonged analgesia of pediatric patients, as well as a part of multidisciplinary treatment of complex regional pain syndrome. It has been shown that outpatient CPNB reduces the need for parenteral administration of opioid analgetics. It has also been proved that this technique can be used in pediatric patients in home conditions. Safety of CPNB is based on the increasing use of ultrasound as well as on the introduction of single enantiomers local anesthetics (ropivacaine and levobupivacaine) in lower concentrations. It is possible to discharge patient home with catheter, but it is necessary to provide adequate education for staff, patients, and parents, as well as to have dedicated anesthesiology team. Postoperative period without major pain raises the morale of the child, parents. and medical staff.

The effect of continuous wound infusion of ropivacaine on postoperative pain after median sternotomy and mediastinal drain in children

BACKGROUND

Postoperative pain after median sternotomy is usually treated with i.v. opioids. We hypothesized that continuous wound infusion of ropivacaine decreases postoperative morphine consumption and improves analgesia in children who undergo cardiac surgery.

METHODS

This randomized, double-blind study comprised 49 children aged 1-9 years who underwent atrial septal defect (ASD) closure. Patients received continuous local anesthetic wound infiltration either with 0.2% ropivacaine, 0.3-0.4 mg·kg(-1) ·h(-1) (Group R) or with saline (Group C). Rescue morphine consumption, Objective Pain Scale (OPS), time to mobilization, time to enteral food intake, and time to discharge were recorded.

RESULTS

There were no statistically significant differences in morphine consumption at 24, 48, and 72 h postsurgery between R and C groups. There was a weak evidence for a difference in the time to the first morphine administration after tracheal extubation to be longer for Group R than Group C (186.2 vs 81.0 min; 95% CI (-236.5, 26.2), P = 0.114). The incidence of nausea and vomiting were comparable between the groups. No signs or symptoms of local anesthetic toxicity were registered.

CONCLUSIONS

Contrary to our hypothesis, continuous ropivacaine wound infusion did not reduce morphine consumption, pain score values, or nausea and vomiting in children who underwent ASD closure with median sternotomy and mediastinal drain.

Peripheral catheter techniques

With ultrasound, continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNBs) are one of the most recent developments in regional anesthesia in children. CPNBs are now used more widely in children because more suitable materials have been marketed, allowing complete, and prolonged postoperative pain control. Their use after orthopedic procedures in children and treatment for complex regional pain syndrome in adolescents has demonstrated the benefits. Perineural catheters have also shown their superiority over other techniques of continuous regional anesthesia in terms of side effects. The efficiency and the safety of these techniques may facilitate early ambulation with improved pain management, treatment at home with disposable pumps, and improved rehabilitation of children. Studies on large cohorts of patients published to date have failed to highlight any severe complications in their use compared with other adult studies. Accidents owing to systemic toxicity are very unlikely if the recommended maximum dose is not exceeded. The safety of continuous regional anesthesia techniques in children relies on the use of low-concentration l-enantiomer solutions (ropivacaine or levobupivacaine) accompanied by low plasma concentrations of local anesthetics, limiting the risk of systemic toxicity of these molecules. CPNB can ensure strong and lasting analgesia in hospital or at home.

Continuous infusion of ropivacaïne: an optimal postoperative analgesia regimen for iliac crest bone graft in children

BACKGROUND

Postoperative analgesia of iliac crest (IC) donor site can be performed by on site infiltrations of local anesthetics (LA) or morphine. Single injections or continuous infusions of LA proved their efficacy in adults, but was not reported in children. We prospectively evaluated the interest of a continuous infusion of 0.2% ropivacaïne at the IC donor site in terms of postoperative pain relief and rescue analgesics consumption.

METHODS

Sixteen consecutive patients, aged from 4 to 16 years scheduled for maxillar alveolar graft with IC bone, were included. After IC bone graft surgery under general anesthesia, they received a 0.2-0.4 ml x kg(-1) bolus of 0.2% ropivacaïne through the IC catheter; then a continuous infusion of 0.2% ropivacaïne at 0.125 ml x kg(-1) x h(-1) was administrated for 48 h with disposable elastomeric pumps. Children systematically received paracetamol (15 mg x kg(-1) four times a day) and niflumic acid (40 mg x kg(-1) twice a day). Postoperative pain was evaluated using a Visual Analog Scale (>7 years old) or Children and Infants Postoperative Pain Score (between 4 and 7 years old) every 4 h until H48. Doses of rescue analgesics and adverse events (LA toxicity, catheter's removal, nausea-vomiting) were also noted. Three months after surgery a blinded clinical research assistant reviewed all children and assessed functional recovery, neuropathic chronic pain symptoms or local complications.

RESULTS

The median value of IC graft pain scores was 0 during whole studied period. Of the patients, 31.2% did not require any rescue analgesics and 43.8% needed only once. No adverse events related to LA and no removal of catheter were noted. One child had nausea in the 48-h postoperative period, and one child had neuropathic pain symptoms at 3 months at the donor site.

CONCLUSION

Continuous infusion of 0.2% ropivacaïne through an IC catheter is an optimal and safe technique of regional postoperative analgesia after bone graft harvest in children.

Continuous peripheral nerve blocks for postoperative analgesia in children: feasibility and side effects in a cohort study of 339 catheters

INTRODUCTION

Perioperative continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNB) are increasingly being used in children. Only one previous study has reported adverse events of CPNB in a high number of pediatric cases. We evaluated the indications, block efficacy, and adverse events related to CPNB in children.

METHODS

All CPNBs that were performed in children for postoperative analgesia over a 5-year period at the Montpellier University Hospital in France were included in this study. The first bolus dose and the continuous doses of local anesthetic were not standardized. In the postoperative period, demographic data, quality of analgesia, amount of rescue analgesic medication, child/parent satisfaction, and adverse events were recorded in our Departmental Regional Anesthesia registry.

RESULTS

A total of 339 catheters were evaluated in 292 children ASA physical status I to III. The median age was 8 yr (0.6-17 yr) and the median weight was 28 kg (7-116 kg). The main surgical indications were hip, femoral, or tibial osteotomies (44.5%) and club foot repair (27.4%). The local anesthetics used were either bupivacaine or ropivacaine. The mean volume of the local anesthetic bolus dose was 0.49 +/- 0.16 mL . kg(-1), and the mean regimen of local anesthetic continuous infusion was 0.11 +/- 0.04 mL . kg(-1) . hr(-1). The median duration of CPNB was 61.6 hr (range 0-264 hr). Pain relief, which was evaluated with the children at rest, was considered optimal in the majority of patients throughout the study period. The Children and Infants Postoperative Pain Scale (CHIPPS) was used in children age 0-6 yr and the Visual Analog Pain Scale (VAS) was used in children 7 yr and older. There were no major adverse events. There were 211 minor adverse events recorded in 153 CPNBs (45.1%). The most frequently reported complication (20.1%) involved mechanical problems with the catheter, followed by nausea and vomiting (14.7%).

CONCLUSION

CPNBs are indicated after orthopedic surgery in children. Our results demonstrate that CPNBs are feasible in the pediatric setting, and in skilled hands, they promote prolonged analgesia in the majority of patients without major adverse events. The most common minor adverse events are catheter-related mechanical problems and postoperative nausea and vomiting.

Pediatric regional anesthesia - update

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

New topics in pediatric regional anesthesia are discussed.

RECENT FINDINGS

Continuous peripheral nerve blocks, new local anesthetics and the performance of regional blocks with ultrasonography guidance are summarized.

SUMMARY

Prolonged analgesia with continuous peripheral nerve blocks in the treatment of pediatric postoperative limb pain, sometimes with patient-controlled regional analgesia, should be preferred instead of continuous epidural analgesia. Levobupivacaine and ropivacaine display the same pharmacokinetic profile as racemic bupivacaine with less cardiac toxicity. Conversely, continuous infusion of these new local anesthetics offers the safest therapeutic index, especially in infants. Many adjuvants have been used, but clonidine offers clear advantages. Ultrasonography guidance blocks will probably become the reference technique for local anesthetics injection and regional anesthesia catheter placement; new training in this field should be available.