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Meng Y, Li W, Hu C, Chen S, Li H, Bai F, Zheng L, Yuan Y, Fan Y, Zhou Y. Ginsenoside F1 administration promotes UCP1-dependent fat browning and ameliorates obesity-associated insulin resistance. FOOD SCIENCE AND HUMAN WELLNESS 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fshw.2023.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
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López-Córdoba G, Martínez-Lorenzana G, Lozano-Cuenca J, Condés-Lara M, González-Hernández A. The differential in vivo contribution of spinal α 2A- and α 2C-adrenoceptors in tonic and acute evoked nociception in the rat. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1023611. [PMID: 36506544 PMCID: PMC9727263 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1023611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal α2-adrenoceptor induces analgesia by neuronal inhibition of primary afferent fibers. This family receptor coupled to G i/o proteins can be subdivided into three functional subtypes: α2A, α2B, and α2C-adrenoceptors, and current evidence on spinal analgesia supports the relevance of α2A and seems to exclude the role of α2B, but the functional contribution of α2C-adrenoceptors remains elusive. The present study was designed to pharmacologically dissect the contribution of spinal α2-adrenoceptor subtypes modulating tonic or acute peripheral nociception. Using male Wistar rats, we analyzed the effect of spinal clonidine (a non-selective α2A/α2B/α2C-adrenoceptor agonist) and/or selective subtype α2-adrenoceptor antagonists on: 1) tonic nociception induced by subcutaneous formalin (flinching behavior) or 2) acute nociception induced by peripheral electrical stimulus in in vivo extracellular recordings of spinal dorsal horn second-order wide dynamic range (WDR) neurons. Clonidine inhibited the nocifensive behavior induced by formalin, an effect blocked by BRL 44408 (α2A-adrenoceptor antagonist) but not by imiloxan (α2B-adrenoceptor antagonist) or JP 1302 (α2C-adrenoceptor antagonist). Similarly, spinal BRL 44408 reversed the clonidine-induced inhibition of nociceptive WDR activity. Interestingly, spinal JP 1302 per se produced behavioral antinociception (an effect blocked by bicuculline, a preferent GABAA channel blocker), but no correlation was found with the electrophysiological experiments. These data imply that, at the spinal level, 1) presynaptic α2A-adrenoceptor activation produces antinociception during acute or tonic nociceptive stimuli; and 2) under tonic nociceptive (inflammatory) input, spinal α2C-adrenoceptors are pronociceptive, probably by the inactivation of GABAergic transmission. This result supports a differential role of α2A and α2C-adrenoceptors modulating nociception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo López-Córdoba
- Departamento de Neurobiología Del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro, Mexico
| | - Guadalupe Martínez-Lorenzana
- Departamento de Neurobiología Del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro, Mexico
| | - Jair Lozano-Cuenca
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Secretaría de Salud, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Miguel Condés-Lara
- Departamento de Neurobiología Del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro, Mexico
| | - Abimael González-Hernández
- Departamento de Neurobiología Del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro, Mexico,*Correspondence: Abimael González-Hernández,
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Gamal-Eltrabily M, Espinosa de Los Monteros-Zúñiga A, Manzano-García A, Martínez-Lorenzana G, Condés-Lara M, González-Hernández A. The Rostral Agranular Insular Cortex, a New Site of Oxytocin to Induce Antinociception. J Neurosci 2020; 40:5669-5680. [PMID: 32571836 PMCID: PMC7363465 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0962-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The rostral agranular insular cortex (RAIC) is a relevant structure in nociception. Indeed, recruitment of GABAergic activity in RAIC promotes the disinhibition of the locus ceruleus, which in turn inhibits (by noradrenergic action) the peripheral nociceptive input at the spinal cord level. In this regard, at the cortical level, oxytocin can modulate the GABAergic transmission; consequently, an interaction modulating nociception could exist between oxytocin and GABA at RAIC. Here, we tested in male Wistar rats the effect of oxytocin microinjection into RAIC during an inflammatory (by subcutaneous peripheral injection of formalin) nociceptive input. Oxytocin microinjection produces a diminution of (1) flinches induced by formalin and (2) spontaneous firing of spinal wide dynamic range cells. The above antinociceptive effect was abolished by microinjection (at RAIC) of the following: (1) L-368899 (an oxytocin receptor [OTR] antagonist) or by (2) bicuculline (a preferent GABAA receptor blocker), suggesting a GABAergic activation induced by OTR. Since intrathecal injection of an α2A-adrenoceptor antagonist (BRL 44408) partially reversed the oxytocin effect, a descending noradrenergic antinociception is suggested. Further, injection of L-368899 per se induces a pronociceptive behavioral effect, suggesting a tonic endogenous oxytocin release during inflammatory nociceptive input. Accordingly, we found bilateral projections from the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) to RAIC. Some of the PVN-projecting cells are oxytocinergic and destinate GABAergic and OTR-expressing cells inside RAIC. Aside from the direct anatomic link between PVN and RAIC, our findings provide evidence about the role of oxytocinergic mechanisms modulating the pain process at the RAIC level.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Oxytocin is a neuropeptide involved in several functions ranging from lactation to social attachment. Over the years, the role of this molecule in pain processing has emerged, showing that, at the spinal level, oxytocin blocks pain transmission. The present work suggests that oxytocin also modulates pain at the cortical insular level by favoring cortical GABAergic transmission and activating descending spinal noradrenergic mechanisms. Indeed, we show that the paraventricular hypothalamicnucleus sends direct oxytocinergic projections to the rostral agranular insular cortex on GABAergic and oxytocin receptor-expressing neurons. Together, our data support the notion that the oxytocinergic system could act as an orchestrator of pain modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Gamal-Eltrabily
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus UNAM-Juriquilla, Juriquilla, CP 76230, Mexico
| | | | - Alfredo Manzano-García
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus UNAM-Juriquilla, Juriquilla, CP 76230, Mexico
| | - Guadalupe Martínez-Lorenzana
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus UNAM-Juriquilla, Juriquilla, CP 76230, Mexico
| | - Miguel Condés-Lara
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus UNAM-Juriquilla, Juriquilla, CP 76230, Mexico
| | - Abimael González-Hernández
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus UNAM-Juriquilla, Juriquilla, CP 76230, Mexico
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Analgesic effect and related amino acids regulation of ginsenoside Rg3 in mouse pain models. Life Sci 2019; 239:117083. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.117083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Revised: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Yao FD, Yang JQ, Huang YC, Luo MP, Yang WJ, Zhang B, Liu XJ. Antinociceptive effects of Ginsenoside Rb1 in a rat model of cancer-induced bone pain. Exp Ther Med 2019; 17:3859-3866. [PMID: 30988771 PMCID: PMC6447891 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2019.7404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1) is a major ingredient of ginseng, a traditional medicine that has been used for thousands of years. Previous studies have reported that GRb1 had anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and neuroprotective effects. The current study aimed to evaluate the antinociceptive effects of GRb1 in a rat model of cancer-induced bone pain (CIBP) established by intratibial injection of Walker 256 cells. Intraperitoneal injection (i.p.) of GRb1 (5 and 10 mg/kg, but not 1 mg/kg) partially and transiently reversed the mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in CIBP rats at 14 days following surgery when the pain behavior is established. Furthermore, repeated administration of GRb1 demonstrated persistent analgesic effect. Additionally, the protein expression and immunoreactivity of iba1, which is the maker of microglia, was significantly suppressed in CIBP rats treated with GRb1 (i.p., 10 mg/kg) from day 12 for three consecutive days compared with CIBP rats treated with a vehicle. Furthermore, upregulation of spinal interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α were also significantly inhibited by the treatment of GRb1 (i.p., 10 mg/kg) from day 12 for three consecutive days. Together, these results indicated that GRb1 may attenuate CIBP via inhibiting the activation of microglia and glial-derived proinflammatory cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Dong Yao
- Department of Spine Surgery, Baoji Central Hospital, Baoji, Shaanxi 721008, P.R. China
| | - Jun-Qi Yang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Baoji Central Hospital, Baoji, Shaanxi 721008, P.R. China
| | - Yuan-Chi Huang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Baoji Central Hospital, Baoji, Shaanxi 721008, P.R. China
| | - Ming-Peng Luo
- Department of Orthopaedics, Baoji Central Hospital, Baoji, Shaanxi 721008, P.R. China
| | - Wen-Jie Yang
- Department of Rehabilitation and Pain, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Shaanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, Shaanxi 712000, P.R. China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Third Hospital of Xi'an City, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710018, P.R. China
| | - Xia-Jun Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Baoji Central Hospital, Baoji, Shaanxi 721008, P.R. China
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Kim MK, Kang H, Baek CW, Jung YH, Woo YC, Choi GJ, Shin HY, Kim KS. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of ginsenoside Rf in a rat model of incisional pain. J Ginseng Res 2017; 42:183-191. [PMID: 29719465 PMCID: PMC5925619 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2017.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ginseng saponin has long been used as a traditional Asian medicine and is known to be effective in treating various kinds of pain. Ginsenoside Rf is one of the biologically active saponins found in ginseng. We evaluated ginsenoside Rf’s antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects, and its mechanism of action on adrenergic and serotonergic receptors, in an incisional pain model. Methods Mechanical hyperalgesia was induced via plantar incision in rats followed by intraperitoneal administration of increasing doses of ginsenoside Rf (vehicle, 0.5 mg/kg, 1 mg/kg, 1.5 mg/kg, and 2 mg/kg). The antinociceptive effect was also compared in a Positive Control Group that received a ketorolac (30 mg/kg) injection, and the Naïve Group, which did not undergo incision. To evaluate the mechanism of action, rats were treated with prazosin (1 mg/kg), yohimbine (2 mg/kg), or ketanserin (1 mg/kg) prior to receiving ginsenoside Rf (1.5 mg/kg). The mechanical withdrawal threshold was measured using von Frey filaments at various time points before and after ginsenoside Rf administration. To evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect, serum interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrotizing factor-α levels were measured. Results Ginsenoside Rf increased the mechanical withdrawal threshold significantly, with a curvilinear dose–response curve peaking at 1.5 mg/kg. IL-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrotizing factor-α levels significantly decreased after ginsenoside Rf treatment. Ginsenoside Rf’s antinociceptive effect was reduced by yohimbine, but potentiated by prazosin and ketanserin. Conclusion Intraperitoneal ginsenoside Rf has an antinociceptive effect peaking at a dose of 1.5 mg/kg. Anti-inflammatory effects were also detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Kyoung Kim
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Kang
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chong Wha Baek
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Hun Jung
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Cheol Woo
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Geun Joo Choi
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwa Yong Shin
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Soo Kim
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Ikeda-Kurosawa C, Higashio H, Nakano M, Okubo M, Satoh YI, Kurosaka D, Saino T. α1-Adrenoceptors relate Ca(2+) modulation and protein secretions in rat lacrimal gland. Biomed Res 2016; 36:357-69. [PMID: 26700590 DOI: 10.2220/biomedres.36.357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Noradrenaline (NA) is a catecholamine with multiple roles including as a hormone and a neurotransmitter. Cellular secretory activities are enhanced by adrenergic stimuli as well as by cholinergic stimuli. The present study aimed to determine which adrenoceptors play a role in controlling intracellular calcium ion ([Ca(2+)]i) level in acinar cells of rat lacrimal glands. Expression of mRNA for adrenoceptor subtypes in the acinar cells was assessed using RT-PCR. All types except α2c, β1, and β3 were detected. NA induced a [Ca(2+)]i increase with a biphasic pattern in the acinar cells. Removal of extracellular Ca(2+) and use of Ca(2+)-channel blockers did not inhibit the NA-induced [Ca(2+)]i increases. In contrast, U73122 and suramin almost blocked these increases. The α1-adrenoceptor agonist phenylephrine induced a strong increase in [Ca(2+)]i. However, clonidine and isoproterenol failed to induce a [Ca(2+)]i increase. The peroxidase activity was quantified as a measure of mucin secretion. Ca(2+)-dependent exocytotic secretion of peroxidase was detected in rat lacrimal glands. The RT-PCR results showed that MUC1, MUC4, MUC5AC, MUC5B, and MUC16 were expressed in acinar cells. These findings indicated that NA activates α1-adrenoceptors, which were found to be the main receptors in Ca(2+)-related cell homeostasis and protein (including mucin) secretion in lacrimal glands.
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Ahn EJ, Choi GJ, Kang H, Baek CW, Jung YH, Woo YC, Bang SR. Antinociceptive Effects of Ginsenoside Rg3 in a Rat Model of Incisional Pain. Eur Surg Res 2016; 57:211-223. [PMID: 27441690 DOI: 10.1159/000448001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ginsenoside Rg3 is an extract of total ginseng saponins, which accounts for 4.7% of all saponins. This study aimed to identify the mechanisms of the antinociceptive effects of ginsenoside Rg3. METHODS Rats were randomly divided into six groups, which were treated with vehicle or 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, or 4 mg/kg of ginsenoside Rg3 intraperitoneally 2 h after a plantar incision was made. To evaluate the mechanisms of antinociceptive effects, the rats were intraperitoneally injected with naloxone 5 mg/kg, atropine 1 mg/kg, yohimbine 2 mg/kg, mecamylamine 1 mg/kg, prazosin 1 mg/kg, and dexmedetomidine 5 μg/kg. Hyperalgesia produced by the plantar incision was assessed using von Frey filaments 1 day before the incision (BI) and 2 h after the plantar incision (AP); this measurement was repeated at 15, 30, 45, 60, 80, 100 and 120 min, and 24 and 48 h after the injection of ginsenoside Rg3. Serum interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels were measured 1 day before incision and 120 min, 24 h, and 48 h after the injection of ginsenoside Rg3 or vehicle. RESULTS The mechanical withdrawal threshold (MWT) significantly increased in the group that received ginsenoside Rg3. The dose-MWT response showed a curvilinear, bell-shaped relationship. The maximum MWT was found with the administration of ginsenoside Rg3 at 1.5 mg/kg; MWT decreased to 2 and 4 mg/kg. Yohimbine diminished the analgesic effect of ginsenoside Rg3. Prazosin and dexmedetomidine increased the analgesic effect of ginsenoside Rg3. IL-1β and IL-6 appeared significantly lower relative to control group. CONCLUSIONS Ginsenoside Rg3 has an analgesic effect with a curvilinear dose-response relationship. Alpha 2 adrenergic receptor appeared to be related to the analgesic effect of ginsenoside Rg3. Also, the anti-inflammatory effect of ginsenoside Rg3 could be related to its analgesic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Jin Ahn
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Inje University Seoul Paik Hospital, Seoul, Korea
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Bhalla S, Ali I, Andurkar SV, Gulati A. Centhaquin antinociception in mice is mediated by α2A- and α2B- but not α2C-adrenoceptors. Eur J Pharmacol 2013; 715:328-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2013] [Revised: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 05/05/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Kim IJ, Park CH, Lee SH, Yoon MH. The role of spinal adrenergic receptors on the antinociception of ginsenosides in a rat postoperative pain model. Korean J Anesthesiol 2013; 65:55-60. [PMID: 23904940 PMCID: PMC3726848 DOI: 10.4097/kjae.2013.65.1.55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2013] [Revised: 05/05/2013] [Accepted: 05/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The effect of spinal adrenergic and cholinergic receptors on the anti-nociceptive effect of intrathecal ginsenosides was determined in a rat postoperative pain model. METHODS Catheters were placed into the intrathecal space of male Sprague-Dawley rats. Postoperative pain was evoked by an incision to the plantar surface of a hind paw. Withdrawal thresholds was used as a nociceptive parameter and was measured with a von Frey filament. After observing the effect of intrathecal ginsenosides, an alpha-1 adrenergic receptor antagonist (prazosin), an alpha-2 adrenergic receptor antagonist (yohimbine), a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist (atropine), and a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist (mecamylamine) were given 10 min before administration of the ginsenosides to analyze the contribution of spinal adrenergic and cholinergic receptors on the antinociceptive effect of ginsenosides. RESULTS Paw incision decreased withdrawal threshold in incised site of paw, but no change of withdrawal threshold was not seen in non-incised site. The intrathecal ginsenosides increased withdrawal threshold of the incised paw in a dose-dependent manner. Pre-treatment with both prazosin and intrathecal yohimbine antagonized the anti-nociceptive effect of the ginsenosides. However, pre-treatments with atropine or mecamylamine had any effect on the antinociceptive activity of ginsenosides. CONCLUSIONS Intrathecal ginsenosides are effective in attenuation of postoperative pain induced in the rat model. Anti-nociceptive action of ginsenosides is partially mediated by spinal adrenergic receptors, but does not appear to be related to spinal cholinergic receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- In Ji Kim
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Gwangju Christian Hospital, Gwangju, Korea
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Park CH, Kim PN, Lee SH, Yoon MH. Additive interaction of intrathecal ginsenosides and neostigmine in the rat formalin test. Korean J Anesthesiol 2013; 64:152-60. [PMID: 23459683 PMCID: PMC3581785 DOI: 10.4097/kjae.2013.64.2.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2012] [Revised: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 10/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The authors evaluated the effect of intrathecal mixture of ginsenosides with neostigmine on formalin-induced nociception and made further clear the role of the spinal muscarinic (M) receptors on the activity of ginsenosides. Methods A catheter was located in the intrathecal space of male Sprague-Dawley rats. Pain was evoked by injection of formalin solution (5%, 50 µl) to the hindpaw. Isobolographic analysis was done to characterize drug interaction between ginsenosides and neostigmine. The antagonism of ginsenosides-mediated antinociception was determined with M1 receptor antagonist (pirenzepine), M2 receptor antagonist (methoctramine), M3 receptor antagonist (4-DAMP), M4 receptor antagonist (tropicamide). The expression of muscarinic receptor subtypes was examined with RT-PCR. Results Intrathecal ginsenosides and neostigmine produced an antinociceptive effect during phase 1 and phase 2 in the formalin test. Isobolographic analysis revealed an additive interaction between ginsenosides and neostigmine in both phases. Intrathecal pirenzepine, methoctramine, 4-DAMP, and tropicamide reversed the antinociception of ginsenosides in both phases. M1-M4 receptors mRNA detected in spinal cord of naïve rats and the injection of formalin decreased the expression of M1 receptor mRNA, but it had no effect on the expression of other three muscarinic receptors mRNA. Intrathecal ginsenosides little affected the expression of all of muscarinic receptors mRNA in formalin-injected rats. Conclusions Intrathecal ginsenosides additively interacted with neostigmine in the formalin test. Furthermore, M1-M4 receptors exist in the spinal cord, all of which contribute to the antinocieption of intrathecal ginsenosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheon-Hee Park
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Kwangju Christian Hospital, Gwangju, Korea
| | - Park-Ne Kim
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Kwangju Christian Hospital, Gwangju, Korea
| | - Seong-Heon Lee
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chonnam National University, Medical School, Gwangju, Korea
| | - Myung Ha Yoon
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chonnam National University, Medical School, Gwangju, Korea
- The Brain Korea 21 Project, Center for Biomedical Human Resources at Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Korea
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