Visual self-motion cues are impaired yet overweighted during visual-vestibular integration in Parkinson's disease

Blending motor learning approaches for short-term adjustments to gait in people with Parkinson disease

Rhythmic auditory cueing (RAC) using an isochronous metronome is an effective approach to immediately enhance spatiotemporal aspects of gait for people with Parkinson disease (PwPD). Whereas entraining to RAC typically occurs subconsciously via cerebellar pathways, the use of metronome frequencies that deviate from one's typical cadence, such as those used in rehabilitation, may require conscious awareness. This heightened awareness may increase cognitive load and limit the persistence of gait training gains. Here, we explore the immediate effects of incorporating an implicit motor learning approach (i.e., error-based recalibration) to gait training with RAC. Twenty older adults (10 with PD and 10 controls) were asked to match their footfalls to both isochronous and subtly varying metronomes while walking on a treadmill and overground. Our findings revealed intriguing differences between treadmill and overground walking. During treadmill walking to a slower metronome frequency, both groups reduced their cadence and increased step lengths, but did not make the necessary adjustments to match the subtly varying metronome. During overground walking, both groups modified their cadence in response to a 3-4% change in metronome frequency (p < 0.05). Both metronomes yielded evidence of implicit and explicit retention during overground and treadmill walking. Furthermore, during overground walking the PD group showed greater implicit retention of cadence changes following the varying metronome, compared to the isochronous metronome. Our results suggest that incorporating implicit motor learning approaches to gait training during a single session of overground walking may enhance short term implicit retention of gait behaviors for PwPD.

Rats rely on airflow cues for self-motion perception

Self-motion perception is a vital skill for all species. It is an inherently multisensory process that combines inertial (body-based) and relative (with respect to the environment) motion cues. Although extensively studied in human and non-human primates, there is currently no paradigm to test self-motion perception in rodents using both inertial and relative self-motion cues. We developed a novel rodent motion simulator using two synchronized robotic arms to generate inertial, relative, or combined (inertial and relative) cues of self-motion. Eight rats were trained to perform a task of heading discrimination, similar to the popular primate paradigm. Strikingly, the rats relied heavily on airflow for relative self-motion perception, with little contribution from the (limited) optic flow cues provided-performance in the dark was almost as good. Relative self-motion (airflow) was perceived with greater reliability vs. inertial. Disrupting airflow, using a fan or windshield, damaged relative, but not inertial, self-motion perception. However, whiskers were not needed for this function. Lastly, the rats integrated relative and inertial self-motion cues in a reliability-based (Bayesian-like) manner. These results implicate airflow as an important cue for self-motion perception in rats and provide a new domain to investigate the neural bases of self-motion perception and multisensory processing in awake behaving rodents.

The lateralized effects of Parkinson's Disease on motor imagery: Evidence from mental chronometry

Alterations to the content of action representations may contribute to the movement challenges that characterize Parkinson's Disease (PD). One way to investigate action representations is through motor imagery. As PD motor symptoms typically have a unilateral onset, disease-related deficits related to action representations may follow a similarly lateralized pattern. The present study examined if temporal accuracy of motor imagery in individuals with PD differed according to the side of the body involved in the task. Thirty-eight participants with PD completed a mental chronometry task using their more affected and less affected side. Participants had significantly shorter mental versus physical movement times for the more affected. Higher imagery vividness in the kinaesthetic domain predicted shorter mental versus physical movement times for the more affected side, as did lower imagery vividness in the visual domain and poorer cognitive function. These results indicate that people with PD imagine movements differently when the target actions their more affected versus less affected side. It is additionally possible that side-specific deficits in the accurate processing of kinaesthetic information lead to an increased reliance on visual processes and cognitive resources to successfully execute motor imagery involving the more affected side.

Comparing the efficacy of therapeutic Thai acupressure on plantar acupoints and laser cane therapy on freezing of gait in Parkinson's disease: a randomized non-inferiority trial

Background

ON-freezing of gait (ON-FOG) in Parkinson's disease (PD), often resistant to medication, is linked to sensory deficits and proprioceptive impairment, and results in falls and reduced life quality. While visual cues from a laser cane (LC), which rapidly accesses the motor cortex, are commonly used to compensate for proprioceptive impairment, increased visual reliance may be affected by disease progression. Emerging evidence suggests that modulation of peripheral sensory processing may alleviate ON-FOG, and therapeutic Thai acupressure (TTA) may be a solution. This study aims to evaluate the effect of TTA in alleviating ON-FOG and compare its effectiveness to LC in patients with PD.

Methods

This open-label, non-inferiority trial randomized 90 PD patients with ON-FOG equally into three arms: TTA for plantar nerve stimulation for 96 s, LC for visual cueing, and sham control (SC). Stride length was the primary non-inferiority endpoint [non-inferiority margin: lower limit of 95% confidence interval (CI) above -10 cm in mean change difference in pre- and immediately post-intervention in TTA versus LC (one-sided)]. Secondary outcomes included FOG episodes, double support time, velocity, cadence, step length, timed up and go (TUG) test, and visual analog scale (VAS) score.

Results

TTA showed non-inferiority to LC in stride length (mean = -0.7 cm; 95% CI: -6.55; 5.15) (one-sided). The improvements with TTA and LC versus SC were comparable between (mean = 13.11 cm; 95% CI: 7.26; 18.96) and (mean = 13.8 cm; 95% CI: 7.96; 19.65) (one-sided). Secondary outcomes favored TTA and LC over SC with improved FOG, velocity, step length, and VAS scores, while only TTA resulted in improved double support time, cadence, and TUG test results. No complications occurred.

Conclusion

The efficacy of TTA, which improves stride length, is non-inferior to that of LC and consequently alleviates FOG comparable to LC. TTA might enhance proprioceptive function and reduce visual dependence. Therefore, TTA, characterized by its non-invasive, simple, and safe techniques, is a potential non-pharmacological alternative for ON-FOG treatment and might enhance overall quality of life. However, further research into the mechanism, efficacy, and utilization of TTA is essential.

Clinical trial registration

https://www.thaiclinicaltrials.org/show/TCTR20200317001, identifier TCTR20200317001.

Multisensory Calibration: A Variety of Slow and Fast Brain Processes Throughout the Lifespan

From before we are born, throughout development, adulthood, and aging, we are immersed in a multisensory world. At each of these stages, our sensory cues are constantly changing, due to body, brain, and environmental changes. While integration of information from our different sensory cues improves precision, this only improves accuracy if the underlying cues are unbiased. Thus, multisensory calibration is a vital and ongoing process. To meet this grand challenge, our brains have evolved a variety of mechanisms. First, in response to a systematic discrepancy between sensory cues (without external feedback) the cues calibrate one another (unsupervised calibration). Second, multisensory function is calibrated to external feedback (supervised calibration). These two mechanisms superimpose. While the former likely reflects a lower level mechanism, the latter likely reflects a higher level cognitive mechanism. Indeed, neural correlates of supervised multisensory calibration in monkeys were found in higher level multisensory cortical area VIP, but not in the relatively lower level multisensory area MSTd. In addition, even without a cue discrepancy (e.g., when experiencing stimuli from different sensory cues in series) the brain monitors supra-modal statistics of events in the environment and adapts perception cross-modally. This too comprises a variety of mechanisms, including confirmation bias to prior choices, and lower level cross-sensory adaptation. Further research into the neuronal underpinnings of the broad and diverse functions of multisensory calibration, with improved synthesis of theories is needed to attain a more comprehensive understanding of multisensory brain function.

Multisensory Integration and Causal Inference in Typical and Atypical Populations

Multisensory perception is critical for effective interaction with the environment, but human responses to multisensory stimuli vary across the lifespan and appear changed in some atypical populations. In this review chapter, we consider multisensory integration within a normative Bayesian framework. We begin by outlining the complex computational challenges of multisensory causal inference and reliability-weighted cue integration, and discuss whether healthy young adults behave in accordance with normative Bayesian models. We then compare their behaviour with various other human populations (children, older adults, and those with neurological or neuropsychiatric disorders). In particular, we consider whether the differences seen in these groups are due only to changes in their computational parameters (such as sensory noise or perceptual priors), or whether the fundamental computational principles (such as reliability weighting) underlying multisensory perception may also be altered. We conclude by arguing that future research should aim explicitly to differentiate between these possibilities.

Visual and vestibular integration in Parkinson's disease while walking

Postural control requires effective sensory integration. People with Parkinson's disease (PD) are reported to have impaired visual and vestibular perception. While self-motion perception is a key aspect of locomotion, visual-vestibular integration has not been directly characterized in people with PD during gait. We compared the ability of people with PD and healthy older adults (OA) to integrate multi-sensory information during straight-line walking in response to visual and vestibular perturbations, using continuous translations of the visual surround and galvanic vestibular stimulation within a virtual reality environment. We measured their endpoint deviations from midline and changes in gait parameters. We found that people with PD deviated more than OA when walking in a dark environment but did not show differences in deviations when walking in a virtual room with visual information. With visual and vestibular perturbations, people with PD did not differ from OA in endpoint deviations nor variabilities. However, people with PD did not adopt a more cautious gait when GVS was applied in a virtual room, unlike OA. Overall, we showed that people with mild PD did not perform worse than OA but did show differences in gait patterns, suggesting that visual-vestibular integration is relatively preserved during gait in PD.

Multisensory decisions from self to world

Classic Bayesian models of perceptual inference describe how an ideal observer would integrate 'unisensory' measurements (multisensory integration) and attribute sensory signals to their origin(s) (causal inference). However, in the brain, sensory signals are always received in the context of a multisensory bodily state-namely, in combination with other senses. Moreover, sensory signals from both interoceptive sensing of one's own body and exteroceptive sensing of the world are highly interdependent and never occur in isolation. Thus, the observer must fundamentally determine whether each sensory observation is from an external (versus internal, self-generated) source to even be considered for integration. Critically, solving this primary causal inference problem requires knowledge of multisensory and sensorimotor dependencies. Thus, multisensory processing is needed to separate sensory signals. These multisensory processes enable us to simultaneously form a sense of self and form distinct perceptual decisions about the external world. In this opinion paper, we review and discuss the similarities and distinctions between multisensory decisions underlying the sense of self and those directed at acquiring information about the world. We call attention to the fact that heterogeneous multisensory processes take place all along the neural hierarchy (even in forming 'unisensory' observations) and argue that more integration of these aspects, in theory and experiment, is required to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of multisensory brain function. This article is part of the theme issue 'Decision and control processes in multisensory perception'.

Stimulus Onset Asynchrony Affects Weighting-related Event-related Spectral Power in Self-motion Perception

Self-motion perception relies primarily on the integration of the visual, vestibular, proprioceptive, and somatosensory systems. There is a gap in understanding how a temporal lag between visual and vestibular motion cues affects visual-vestibular weighting during self-motion perception. The beta band is an index of visual-vestibular weighting, in that robust beta event-related synchronization (ERS) is associated with visual weighting bias, and robust beta event-related desynchronization is associated with vestibular weighting bias. The present study examined modulation of event-related spectral power during a heading judgment task in which participants attended to either visual (optic flow) or physical (inertial cues stimulating the vestibular, proprioceptive and somatosensory systems) motion cues from a motion simulator mounted on a MOOG Stewart Platform. The temporal lag between the onset of visual and physical motion cues was manipulated to produce three lag conditions: simultaneous onset, visual before physical motion onset, and physical before visual motion onset. There were two main findings. First, we demonstrated that when the attended motion cue was presented before an ignored cue, the power of beta associated with the attended modality was greater than when visual-vestibular cues were presented simultaneously or when the ignored cue was presented first. This was the case for beta ERS when the visual-motion cue was attended to, and beta event-related desynchronization when the physical-motion cue was attended to. Second, we tested whether the power of feature-binding gamma ERS (demonstrated in audiovisual and visual-tactile integration studies) increased when the visual-vestibular cues were presented simultaneously versus with temporal asynchrony. We did not observe an increase in gamma ERS when cues were presented simultaneously, suggesting that electrophysiological markers of visual-vestibular binding differ from markers of audiovisual and visual-tactile integration. All event-related spectral power reported in this study were generated from dipoles projecting from the left and right motor areas, based on the results of Measure Projection Analysis.

Fluorescent Probes as a Tool in Diagnostic and Drug Delivery Systems

Over the last few years, the development of fluorescent probes has received considerable attention. Fluorescence signaling allows noninvasive and harmless real-time imaging with great spectral resolution in living objects, which is extremely useful for modern biomedical applications. This review presents the basic photophysical principles and strategies for the rational design of fluorescent probes as visualization agents in medical diagnosis and drug delivery systems. Common photophysical phenomena, such as Intramolecular Charge Transfer (ICT), Twisted Intramolecular Charge Transfer (TICT), Photoinduced Electron Transfer (PET), Excited-State Intramolecular Proton Transfer (ESIPT), Fluorescent Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET), and Aggregation-Induced Emission (AIE), are described as platforms for fluorescence sensing and imaging in vivo and in vitro. The presented examples are focused on the visualization of pH, biologically important cations and anions, reactive oxygen species (ROS), viscosity, biomolecules, and enzymes that find application for diagnostic purposes. The general strategies regarding fluorescence probes as molecular logic devices and fluorescence–drug conjugates for theranostic and drug delivery systems are discussed. This work could be of help for researchers working in the field of fluorescence sensing compounds, molecular logic gates, and drug delivery.

Novel ways to modulate the vestibular system: Magnetic vestibular stimulation, deep brain stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation / transcranial direct current stimulation

BACKGROUND

Advances in neurotechnologies are revolutionizing our understanding of complex neural circuits and enabling new treatments for disorders of the human brain. In the vestibular system, electromagnetic stimuli can now modulate vestibular reflexes and sensations of self-motion by artificially stimulating the labyrinth, cerebellum, cerebral cortex, and their connections.

OBJECTIVE

In this narrative review, we describe evolving neuromodulatory techniques including magnetic vestibular stimulation (MVS), deep brain stimulation (DBS), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) and discuss current and potential future application in the field of neuro-otology.

RESULTS

MVS triggers both vestibular nystagmic (persistent) and perceptual (lasting ∼1 min) responses that may serve as a model to study central adaptational mechanisms and pathomechanisms of hemispatial neglect. By systematically mapping DBS electrodes, targeted stimulation of central vestibular pathways allowed modulating eye movements, vestibular heading perception, spatial attention and graviception, resulting in reduced anti-saccade error rates and hypometria, improved heading discrimination, shifts in verticality perception and transiently decreased spatial attention. For TMS/tDCS treatment trials have demonstrated amelioration of vestibular symptoms in various neuro-otological conditions, including chronic vestibular insufficiency, Mal-de-Debarquement and cerebellar ataxia.

CONCLUSION

Neuromodulation has a bright future as a potential treatment of vestibular dysfunction. MVS, DBS and TMS may provide new and sophisticated, customizable, and specific treatment options of vestibular symptoms in humans. While promising treatment responses have been reported for TMS/tDCS, treatment trials for vestibular disorders using MVS or DBS have yet to be defined and performed.

The human brain networks mediating the vestibular sensation of self-motion

Vestibular Agnosia - where peripheral vestibular activation triggers the usual reflex nystagmus response but with attenuated or no self-motion perception - is found in brain disease with disrupted cortical network functioning, e.g. traumatic brain injury (TBI) or neurodegeneration (Parkinson's Disease). Patients with acute focal hemispheric lesions (e.g. stroke) do not manifest vestibular agnosia. Thus, brain network mapping techniques, e.g. resting state functional MRI (rsfMRI), are needed to interrogate functional brain networks mediating vestibular agnosia. Hence, we prospectively recruited 39 acute TBI patients with preserved peripheral vestibular function and obtained self-motion perceptual thresholds during passive yaw rotations in the dark and additionally acquired whole-brain rsfMRI in the acute phase. Following quality-control checks, 26 patient scans were analyzed. Using self-motion perceptual thresholds from a matched healthy control group, 11 acute TBI patients were classified as having vestibular agnosia versus 15 with normal self-motion perception thresholds. Using independent component analysis on the rsfMRI data, we found altered functional connectivity in bilateral lingual gyrus and temporo-occipital fusiform cortex in the vestibular agnosia patients. Moreover, regions of interest analyses showed both inter-hemispheric and intra-hemispheric network disruption in vestibular agnosia. In conclusion, our results show that vestibular agnosia is mediated by bilateral anterior and posterior network dysfunction and reveal the distributed brain mechanisms mediating vestibular self-motion perception.

Motion sickness susceptibility and visually induced motion sickness as diagnostic signs in Parkinson's disease

Postural instability and loss of vestibular and somatosensory acuity can be part of the signs encountered in Parkinson's Disease (PD). Visual dependency is described in PD. These modifications of sensory input hierarchy are predictors of motion sickness (MS). The aim of this study was to assess MS susceptibility and effects of real induced MS in posture. 63 PD patients, whose medication levels (levodopa) reflected the pathology were evaluated, and 27 healthy controls, filled a MS questionnaire; 9 PD patients and 43 healthy controls were assessed by posturography using virtual reality. Drug amount predicted visual MS (p=0.01), but not real induced MS susceptibility. PD patients did not experience postural instability in virtual reality, contrary to healthy controls. Since PD patients do not seem to feel vestibular stimulated MS, they may not rely on vestibular and somatosensory inputs during the stimulation. However, they feel visually induced MS more with increased levodopa drug effect. Levodopa amount can increase visual dependency. The strongest MS predictors must be studied in PD to better understand the effect of visual stimulation and its absence in vestibular stimulation.

Resting state functional networks predict different aspects of postural control in Parkinson's disease

BACKGROUND

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder causing postural control impairments. Postural control involves multiple domains, such as control of postural sway in stance, automatic postural responses (APRs) and anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs). We hypothesize that impairments in each postural domain is associated with resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC), accounted by predictive modeling and that cortical and cerebellar networks would predict postural control in people with PD (PwPD).

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether rsFC can predict three domains of postural control independently in PwPD and older adults (OA) based on predictive accuracy of models.

METHODS

The cohort consisted of 65 PwPD (67.7 +8.1 age) tested in their OFF-state and 42 OA (69.7 +8.2 age). Six body-worn, inertial sensors measured postural sway area while standing on foam, step length of APRs to a backward push-and-release perturbation, and magnitude of lateral APAs prior to voluntary gait initiation. Resting state-fMRI data was reported on 384 regions of interest that were grouped into 13 functional brain networks. Associations between rsFC and postural metrics were characterized using predictive modeling, with an independent training (n = 67) and validation (n = 40) dataset. Models were trained in the training sample and performance of the best model was validated in the independent test dataset.

RESULTS

rsFC of different brain networks predicted each domain of postural control in PD: Frontoparietal and Ventral Attention rsFC for APAs; Cerebellar-Subcortical and Visual rsFC and Auditory and Cerebellar-Subcortical rsFC for APRs; Ventral Attention and Ventral Multimodal rsFC for postural sway. In OA, CinguloOpercular and Somatomotor rsFC predicted APAs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that cortical networks predict postural control in PD and there is little overlap in brain network connectivities that predict different domains of postural control, given the rsFC methodology used. PwPD use different cortical networks for APAs compared to OA.

Systematic review for the prevention and management of falls and fear of falling in patients with Parkinson's disease

OBJECTIVE

To synthesize recent empirical evidence for the prevention and management of falls and fear of falling in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD).

DATA SOURCE

Database from PubMed, Cochrane Library, and EMBASE.

STUDY DESIGN

Systematic review.

DATA COLLECTION

We searched the PubMed, Cochrane Library, and EMBASE databases for studies published from inception to February 27, 2021. Inclusion criteria were nonreview articles on prevention and management measures related to falls and fall prevention in Parkinson's disease patients.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We selected 45 articles and conducted in-depth research and discussion. According to the causes of falls in PD patients, they were divided into five directions, namely physical status, pre-existing conditions, environment, medical care, and cognition. In the cognitive domain, we focused on the fear of falling. On the above basis, we constructed a fall prevention model, which is a tertiary prevention health care network, based on The Johns Hopkins Fall Risk Assessment Tool to provide ideas for the prevention and management of falling and fear of falling in PD patients in clinical practice CONCLUSIONS: Falls and fear of falls in patients with Parkinson's disease can be reduced by effective clinical prevention and management. Future studies are needed to explore the efficacy of treatment and prevention of falls and fear of falls.

The distorted body: The perception of the relative proportions of the body is preserved in Parkinson's disease

Given humans' ubiquitous visual experience of their own body, one reasonable assumption is that one's perceptions of the lengths of their body parts should be accurate. However, recent research has shown that large systematic distortions of the length of body parts are present in healthy younger adults. These distortions appear to be linked to tactile sensitivity such that individuals overestimate the length of body parts of low tactile sensitivity to a greater extent than body parts of high tactile sensitivity. There are certain conditions featuring reduced tactile sensitivity, such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and healthy older ageing. However, the effect of these circumstances on individuals' perceptions of the lengths of their body parts remains unknown. In this study, participants visually estimated the length of their body parts using their hand as a metric. We show that despite the reductions in tactile sensitivity, and potential alterations in the cortical presentation of body parts that may occur in PD and healthy older ageing, individuals with mild-moderate PD and older adults of comparable age experience body size distortions comparable to healthy younger controls. These findings demonstrate that the ability to perceive the length of one's body parts is well preserved in mild-moderate PD.

The clinical approach to the identification of higher-order visual dysfunction in neurodegenerative disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review is intended to assist the reader in gaining the knowledge and skills necessary for the recognition and assessment of higher-order visual dysfunction due to neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Parkinson's dementia, corticobasal degeneration, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and the posterior cortical atrophy syndrome. Clinical problem-solving and pattern recognition must be developed and practiced to accurately diagnosis disturbances of higher-order visual function, and knowledge of higher-order visual brain regions and their visual syndromes forms the foundation for deciphering symptoms presented by patients and/or their care partners. Tests of higher-order visual dysfunction must be assembled by the clinician and assessment can take time and effort. The use of screening tests, follow-up visits, and formal neuropsychological referrals are critical components for accurate diagnosis and these principles are reviewed here.

RECENT FINDINGS

A recent survey of neuro-ophthalmologists revealed that over half of the respondents report that 5-10% of their new patient referrals carry a diagnosis of neurodegenerative disease and many patients were referred for visual symptoms of unknown cause. Despite over a century of discovery related to higher-order visual functions of the human brain, translation of discovery to the clinical assessment of patients has been slow or absent. As with the approach to translational medicine in general, to see meaningful progress, an interdisciplinary approach is indispensable. The first step involves the application of discoveries from the field visual neuroscience by clinicians from the fields of ophthalmology, neurology, and neuropsychology, and from the disciplines of neuro-ophthalmology and behavioral neurology. The unmet need for recognition, assessment, and management of higher-order visual dysfunction in neurodegeneration is evident and clinicians can contribute to closing the gap by using the approach and the tools outlined in the review.

Abnormal multisensory integration in relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis

Temporal Binding Window (TBW) represents a reliable index of efficient multisensory integration process, which allows individuals to infer which sensory inputs from different modalities pertain to the same event. TBW alterations have been reported in some neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders and seem to negatively affects cognition and behavior. So far, it is still unknown whether deficits of multisensory integration, as indexed by an abnormal TBW, are present even in Multiple Sclerosis. We addressed this issue by testing 25 participants affected by relapsing–remitting Multiple Sclerosis (RRMS) and 30 age-matched healthy controls. Participants completed a simultaneity judgment task (SJ2) to assess the audio-visual TBW; two unimodal SJ2 versions were used as control tasks. Individuals with RRMS showed an enlarged audio-visual TBW (width range = from − 166 ms to + 198 ms), as compared to healthy controls (width range = − 177/ + 66 ms), thus showing an increased tendency to integrate temporally asynchronous visual and auditory stimuli. Instead, simultaneity perception of unimodal (visual or auditory) events overall did not differ from that of controls. These results provide first evidence of a selective deficit of multisensory integration in individuals affected by RRMS, besides the well-known motor and cognitive impairments. The reduced multisensory temporal acuity is likely caused by a disruption of the neural interplay between different sensory systems caused by multiple sclerosis.

Deep learning reveals personalized spatial spectral abnormalities of high delta and low alpha bands in EEG of patients with early Parkinson's disease

Objective.Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases, and early diagnosis is crucial to delay disease progression. The diagnosis of early PD has always been a difficult clinical problem due to the lack of reliable biomarkers. Electroencephalogram (EEG) is the most common clinical detection method, and studies have attempted to discover the EEG spectrum characteristics of early PD, but the reported conclusions are not uniform due to the heterogeneity of early PD patients. There is an urgent need for a more advanced algorithm to extract spectrum characteristics from EEG to satisfy the personalized requirements.Approach.The structured power spectral density with spatial distribution was used as the input of convolutional neural network (CNN). A visualization technique called gradient-weighted class activation mapping was used to extract the optimal frequency bands for identifying early PD. Based on the model visualization, we proposed a novel quantitative index of spectral characteristics, spatial-mapping relative power (SRP), to detect personalized abnormalities in the spatial spectral characteristics of EEG in early PD.Main results.We demonstrated the feasibility of applying CNN to identify the patients with early PD with an accuracy of 99.87% ± 0.03%. The models indicated the characteristic frequency bands (high-delta (3.5-4.5 Hz) and low-alpha (7.5-11 Hz) frequency bands) that are used to identify the early PD. The SRP of these two characteristic bands in early PD patients was significantly higher than that in the control group, and the abnormalities were consistent at the group and individual levels.Significance.This study provides a novel personalized detection algorithm based on deep learning to reveal the optimal frequency bands for identifying early PD and obtain the spatial frequency characteristics of early PD. The findings of this study will provide an effective reference for the auxiliary diagnosis of early PD in clinical practice.

Influence of radial optic flow stimulation on static postural balance in Parkinson's disease: A preliminary study

The role of optic flow in the control of balance in persons with Parkinson's disease (PD) has yet to be studied. Since basal ganglia are understood to have a role in controlling ocular fixation, we have hypothesized that persons with PD would exhibit impaired performance in fixation tasks, i.e., altered postural balance due to the possible relationships between postural disorders and visual perception. The aim of this preliminary study was to investigate how people affected by PD respond to optic flow stimuli presented with radial expanding motion, with the intention to see how the stimulation of different retinal portions may alter the static postural sway. We measured the body sway using center of pressure parameters recorded from two force platforms during the presentation of the foveal, peripheral and full field radial optic flow stimuli. Persons with PD had different visual responses in terms of fixational eye movement characteristics, with greater postural alteration in the sway area and in the medio-lateral direction than the age-matched control group. Balance impairment in the medio-lateral oscillation is often observed in persons with atypical Parkinsonism, but not in Parkinson's disease. Persons with PD are more dependent on visual feedback with respect to age-matched control subjects, and this could be due to their impaired peripheral kinesthetic feedback. Visual stimulation of standing posture would provide reliable signs in the differential diagnosis of Parkinsonism.

Visual perturbation of balance suggests impaired motor control but intact visuomotor processing in Parkinson's disease

Postural instability marks one of the most disabling features of Parkinson's disease (PD), but it only reveals itself after affected brain areas have already been significantly damaged. Thus there is a need to detect deviations in balance and postural control before visible symptoms occur. In this study, we visually perturbed balance in the anterior-posterior direction using sinusoidal oscillations of a moving room in virtual reality at different frequencies. We tested three groups: individuals with PD under dopaminergic medication, an age-matched control group, and a group of young healthy adults. We tracked their center of pressure and their full-body motion, from which we also extracted the center of mass. We investigated sway amplitudes and applied newly introduced phase-locking analyses to investigate responses across participants' bodies. Patients exhibited significantly higher sway amplitudes as compared with the control subjects. However, their sway was phase locked to the visual motion like that of age-matched and young healthy adults. Furthermore, all groups successfully compensated for the visual perturbation by phase locking their sway to the stimulus. As frequency of the perturbation increased, distribution of phase locking (PL) across the body revealed a shift of the highest PL values from the upper body toward the hip region for young healthy adults, which could not be observed in patients and elderly healthy adults. Our findings suggest an impaired motor control, but intact visuomotor processing in early stages of PD, while less flexibility to adapt postural strategy to different perturbations revealed to be an effect of age rather than disease.NEW & NOTEWORTHY A better understanding of visuomotor control in Parkinson's disease (PD) potentially serves as a tool for earlier diagnosis, which is crucial for improving patient's quality of life. In our study, we assess body sway responses to visual perturbations of the balance control system in patients with early-to-mid stage PD, using motion tracking along with recently established phase-locking techniques. Our findings suggest patients at this stage have an impaired muscular stability but intact visuomotor control.

Using virtual reality to assess vestibulo-visual interaction in people with Parkinson's disease compared to healthy controls

People with Parkinson's disease (PD) have increased visual dependency for balance and suspected vestibular dysfunction. Immersive virtual reality (VR) allows graded manipulation of visual sensory inputs during balance tasks, and hence VR coupled with portable force platforms have emerged as feasible, affordable, and validated tools for assessing sensory-motor integration of balance. This study aims to determine (i) how people with PD perform on a VR-based visual perturbation standing balance task compared to healthy controls (HC), and (ii) whether balance performance is influenced by vestibular function, when other known factors are controlled for. This prospective observational study compared the balance performance under varying sensory conditions in 40 people with mild to moderate PD with 40 age-matched HC. Vestibular function was assessed via Head Impulse Test (HIMP), cervical and ocular vestibular evoked myogenic potentials (cVEMPs and oVEMPs) and subjective visual vertical (SVV). Regression analyses were used to determine associations between VR balance performance on firm and foam surfaces with age, group, vestibular function, and lower limb proprioception. PD failed at significantly lower levels of visual perturbation than HC on both surfaces. In PD, greater disease severity was significantly associated with lower fall thresholds on both surfaces. Multiple PD participants failed prior to visual perturbation on foam. On firm, PD had a greater visual dependency. Increasing age, impaired proprioception, impaired SVV, abnormal HIMP and cVEMP scores were associated with worse balance performance. The multivariate model containing these factors explained 29% of the variability in balance performance on both surfaces. Quantitative VR-based balance assessment is safe and feasible in PD. Balance performance on both surfaces was associated with age, HIMP abnormality and proprioception.

Subthalamic deep brain stimulation affects heading perception in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) presents with visuospatial impairment and falls. It is critical to understand how subthalamic deep brain stimulation (STN DBS) modulates visuospatial perception. We hypothesized that DBS has different effects on visual and vestibular perception of linear motion (heading), a critical aspect of visuospatial navigation; and such effects are specific to modulated STN location. Two-alternative forced-choice experiments were performed in 14 PD patients with bilateral STN DBS and 19 age-matched healthy controls (HC) during passive en bloc linear motion and 3D optic-flow in immersive virtual reality measured vestibular and visual heading. Objective measure of perception with Weibull psychometric function revealed that PD has significantly lower accuracy [L: 60.71 (17.86)%, R: 74.82 (17.44)%] and higher thresholds [L: 16.68 (12.83), R: 10.09 (7.35)] during vestibular task in both directions compared to HC (p < 0.05). DBS significantly improved vestibular discrimination accuracy [81.40 (14.36)%] and threshold [4.12 (5.87), p < 0.05] in the rightward direction. There were no DBS effects on the slopes of vestibular psychometric curves. Visual heading perception was better than vestibular and it was comparable to HC. There was no significant effect of DBS on visual heading response accuracy or discrimination threshold (p > 0.05). Patient-specific DBS models revealed an association between change in vestibular heading perception and the modulation of the dorsal STN. In summary, DBS may have different effects on vestibular and visual heading perception in PD. These effects may manifest via dorsal STN putatively by its effects on the cerebellum.

The Role of Mental Imagery in Parkinson's Disease Rehabilitation

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a disabling neurodegenerative disease whose manifestations span motor, sensorimotor, and sensory domains. While current therapies for PD include pharmacological, invasive, and physical interventions, there is a constant need for developing additional approaches for optimizing rehabilitation gains. Mental imagery is an emerging field in neurorehabilitation and has the potential to serve as an adjunct therapy to enhance patient function. Yet, the literature on this topic is sparse. The current paper reviews the motor, sensorimotor, and sensory domains impacted by PD using gait, balance, and pain as examples, respectively. Then, mental imagery and its potential for PD motor and non-motor rehabilitation is discussed, with an emphasis on its suitability for addressing gait, balance, and pain deficits in people with PD. Lastly, future research directions are suggested.

Overconfidence in visual perception in parkinson's disease

Increased dependence on visual cues in Parkinson's disease (PD) can unbalance the perception-action loop, impair multisensory integration, and affect everyday function of PD patients. It is currently unknown why PD patients seem to be more reliant on their visual cues. We hypothesized that PD patients may be overconfident in the reliability (precision) of their visual cues. In this study we tested coherent visual motion perception in PD, and probed subjective (self-reported) confidence in their visual motion perception. Twenty patients with idiopathic PD, 21 healthy aged-matched controls and 20 healthy young adult participants were presented with visual stimuli of moving dots (random dot kinematograms). They were asked to report: (1) whether the aggregate motion of dots was to the left or to the right, and (2) how confident they were that their perceptual discrimination was correct. Visual motion discrimination thresholds were similar (unimpaired) in PD compared to the other groups. By contrast, PD patients were significantly overconfident in their visual perceptual decisions (p = .002 and p < .001 vs. the age-matched and young adult groups, respectively). These results suggest intact visual motion perception, but overestimation of visual cue reliability, in PD. Overconfidence in visual (vs. other, e.g., somatosensory) cues could underlie increased visual dependence and impaired multisensory/sensorimotor integration in PD. It could thereby contribute to gait and balance impairments, and affect everyday activities, such as driving. Future work should investigate and compare PD confidence in somatosensory function. A better understanding of altered sensory reliance might open up new avenues to treat debilitating PD symptoms.