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Fitzpatrick LLJ, Ligabue-Braun R, Nekaris KAI. Slowly Making Sense: A Review of the Two-Step Venom System within Slow ( Nycticebus spp.) and Pygmy Lorises ( Xanthonycticebus spp.). Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:514. [PMID: 37755940 PMCID: PMC10536643 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15090514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the early 2000s, studies of the evolution of venom within animals have rapidly expanded, offering new revelations on the origins and development of venom within various species. The venomous mammals represent excellent opportunities to study venom evolution due to the varying functional usages, the unusual distribution of venom across unrelated mammals and the diverse variety of delivery systems. A group of mammals that excellently represents a combination of these traits are the slow (Nycticebus spp.) and pygmy lorises (Xanthonycticebus spp.) of south-east Asia, which possess the only confirmed two-step venom system. These taxa also present one of the most intriguing mixes of toxic symptoms (cytotoxicity and immunotoxicity) and functional usages (intraspecific competition and ectoparasitic defence) seen in extant animals. We still lack many pieces of the puzzle in understanding how this venom system works, why it evolved what is involved in the venom system and what triggers the toxic components to work. Here, we review available data building upon a decade of research on this topic, focusing especially on why and how this venom system may have evolved. We discuss that research now suggests that venom in slow lorises has a sophisticated set of multiple uses in both intraspecific competition and the potential to disrupt the immune system of targets; we suggest that an exudate diet reveals several toxic plants consumed by slow and pygmy lorises that could be sequestered into their venom and which may help heal venomous bite wounds; we provide the most up-to-date visual model of the brachial gland exudate secretion protein (BGEsp); and we discuss research on a complement component 1r (C1R) protein in saliva that may solve the mystery of what activates the toxicity of slow and pygmy loris venom. We conclude that the slow and pygmy lorises possess amongst the most complex venom system in extant animals, and while we have still a lot more to understand about their venom system, we are close to a breakthrough, particularly with current technological advances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Lucy Joscelyne Fitzpatrick
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Rodrigo Ligabue-Braun
- Department of Pharmacosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Avenida Sarmento Leite 245, Porto Alegre 90050-170, Brazil;
| | - K. Anne-Isola Nekaris
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
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Ashwell KWS, Gurovich Y. Quantitative analysis of forebrain pallial morphology in monotremes and comparison with that in therians. ZOOLOGY 2019; 134:38-57. [PMID: 31146906 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
We have made quantitative volumetric analyses of cerebral cortical (pallial) structures in the brains of three species of monotreme (Ornithorhynchus anatinus, Tachyglossus aculeatus, Zaglossus bruijni) and compared the findings with similar measurements in a range of therian mammals (6 marsupials and 50 placentals). We have found that although the iso- and periallocortical grey matter volume of the monotremes is about what would be expected for their brain size, the proportion of iso- and periallocortical white matter in monotremes is substantially lower than that in the forebrains of therians. This suggests that the forebrains of the three monotremes have fewer association, commissural and/or projection connections than those of similarly sized forebrains of therian mammals. We also found that the iso- and periallocortex of the platypus is relatively smooth-surfaced compared to similarly sized brains of therian mammals, with a distinct caudal shift in the positioning of cortical white matter in the forebrain, consistent with expansion of the posterior thalamic radiation. Central laminated olfactory structures (anterior olfactory nucleus and piriform cortex) are large in the tachyglossid monotremes (Tachyglossus aculeatus and Zaglossus bruijni) and large in xenarthran placental mammals, suggesting convergence of the forebrain structure of monotreme formivores with that of similarly specialized therians like the xenarthrans Myrmecophaga tridactyla and Dasypus novemcinctus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken W S Ashwell
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences, The University of New South Wales, 2052, New South Wales, Australia.
| | - Yamila Gurovich
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences, The University of New South Wales, 2052, New South Wales, Australia; CIEMEP, CONICET-UNPSJB, Roca 780, Esquel, 9200, Chubut, Argentina.
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3
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Seasonal and reproductive variation in chemical constituents of scent signals in wild giant pandas. SCIENCE CHINA-LIFE SCIENCES 2019; 62:648-660. [PMID: 30671887 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-018-9388-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Seasonally reproducing animals show many behavioral and physiological changes during the mating period, including increased signaling for intrasexual competition and mate attraction. We collected 102 anogenital gland secretions (AGS) from marking trees in Foping Nature Reserve, and used gas chromatography mass spectrometry analyze these chemical composition. Of these marks, all but one were from males, confirmed with DNA analysis. We found that several chemical constituents, especially volatile compounds, is present only during the mating season and that the relative abundance of many compounds changed as a function of breeding season, whereas nonvolatile compounds were lower in the mating season. This seasonal variation in chemical composition of AGS most likely plays an important role in governing giant panda reproduction, including mate location, attraction, and male-male competition. The chemical properties of many of these putative chemosignals-such as volatility and longevity-are suggestive of these roles, and undoubtedly contribute to successful reproduction for this species with a characteristically sophisticated chemical communication system. We also found a number of important differences between the chemical constituents of AGS from wild pandas and those found in previous studies with captive pandas, suggesting that inappropriate chemosignal composition may contribute to poor reproductive success in captive breeding programs.
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Nicol SC, Andersen NA, Morrow GE, Harris RL. Spurs, sexual dimorphism and reproductive maturity in Tasmanian echidnas (Tachyglossus aculeatus setosus). AUSTRALIAN MAMMALOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1071/am18005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
We present data from an 18-year study of a wild population of Tasmanian echidnas, which show that the presence of spurs in an adult are a reliable indicator of sex, and that there is a slight but significant sexual dimorphism in size, with a male to female mass ratio of 1.1. Minimum age at first breeding in the wild for Tasmanian echidnas was 5 years, as has been found on Kangaroo Island, compared with 3 years in captive echidnas. It is often assumed that although the echidna is distributed throughout Australia, New Guinea and off-shore islands that all aspects of its basic biology are the same in all populations, but comparisons of our results with data from other populations suggest that there may be differences in size and sexual dimorphism.
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Zidat T, Dufour AB, Meiffren G, Gabirot M, Comte G, Allainé D. Anal scent gland secretions inform on sexual maturity, sex and social status in the Alpine marmot, Marmota marmota (Rodentia: Sciuridae): a role in intrasexual competition in cooperative breeders? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Timothée Zidat
- Université de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR 5558, Laboratoire Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Anne-Béatrice Dufour
- Université de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR 5558, Laboratoire Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Guillaume Meiffren
- Université de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR 5557, Laboratoire d’Ecologie Microbienne, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Marianne Gabirot
- Université de Montpellier, Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier, EPHE, CNRS, UMR 5175, Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Gilles Comte
- Université de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR 5557, Laboratoire d’Ecologie Microbienne, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Dominique Allainé
- Université de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR 5558, Laboratoire Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive, Villeurbanne, France
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Abstract
In 1803, the French anatomist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire decided that the newly described echidna and platypus should be placed in a separate order, the monotremes, intermediate between reptiles and mammals. The first physiological observations showed monotremes had low body temperatures and metabolic rates, and the consensus was that they were at a stage of physiological development intermediate between "higher mammals" and "lower vertebrates." Subsequent studies demonstrated that platypuses and echidnas are capable of close thermoregulation in the cold although less so under hot conditions. Because the short-beaked echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus, may show very large daily variations in body temperature, as well as seasonal hibernation, it has been suggested that it may provide a useful model of protoendotherm physiology. Such analysis is complicated by the very significant differences in thermal relations between echidnas from different climates. In all areas female echidnas regulate Tb within 1°C during egg incubation. The lactation period is considered to be the most energetically expensive time for most female mammals but lactating echidnas showed no measurable difference in field metabolic rate from non-lactating females, while the lactation period is more than 200 days for Kangaroo Island echidnas but only 150 days in Tasmania. In areas with mild winters echidnas show reduced activity and shallow torpor in autumn and early winter, but in areas with cold winters echidnas enter true hibernation with Tb falling as low as 4.5°C. Monotremes do not possess brown adipose tissue and maximum rates of rewarming from hibernation in echidnas were only half those of marmots of the same mass. Although echidnas show very large seasonal variations in fat stores associated with hibernation there is no relationship between plasma leptin and adiposity. Leptin levels are lowest during post-reproductive fattening, supporting suggestions that in evolutionary terms the anorectic effects of leptin preceded the adiposity signal. BMR of platypuses is twice that of echidnas although maximum metabolism is similar. High levels of thyroid hormones in platypuses may be driving metabolism limited by low body temperature. Monotremes show a mosaic of plesiomorphic and derived features but can still inform our understanding of the evolution of endothermy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stewart C. Nicol
- Biological Sciences, University of TasmaniaHobart, TAS, Australia
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Sergiel A, Naves J, Kujawski P, Maślak R, Serwa E, Ramos D, Fernández-Gil A, Revilla E, Zwijacz-Kozica T, Zięba F, Painer J, Selva N. Histological, chemical and behavioural evidence of pedal communication in brown bears. Sci Rep 2017; 7:1052. [PMID: 28432322 PMCID: PMC5430784 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-01136-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Most mammals rely upon scent for intraspecific communication. As most bear species have large home ranges and are non-territorial, scent deposit while walking could be an effective way to communicate with conspecifics. Here, we investigate the existence of pedal glands in brown bears and their role in chemical communication from a histological, biochemical and behavioural perspective. We found eccrine glands in footpads, and prominent apocrine and sebaceous glands in the interdigital, metacarpal and metatarsal skin sections. Pedal scent contained 26 compounds including carboxylic acids, important constituents of mammalian secretions. Six of these compounds were exclusive for males. Finally, we describe a specific marking gait recorded in the field, mostly performed by males. Our study supports the existence of chemical communication through pedal marking in brown bears and suggests sex-coding potential of pedal scent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Sergiel
- Institute of Nature Conservation, Polish Academy of Sciences, Adama Mickiewicza Av. 33, 31120, Kraków, Poland.
| | - Javier Naves
- Department of Conservation Biology, Estación Biológica de Doñana CSIC, Avd. Americo Vespucio s/n, 41092, Seville, Spain
| | - Piotr Kujawski
- Wrocław Research Centre EIT+, Stabłowicka 147, 54006, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Robert Maślak
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Conservation of Vertebrates, Institute of Environmental Biology, University of Wrocław, Sienkiewicza Str. 21, 50335, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Ewa Serwa
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Conservation of Vertebrates, Institute of Environmental Biology, University of Wrocław, Sienkiewicza Str. 21, 50335, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Damián Ramos
- Consejería de Desarrollo Rural y Recursos Naturales, Gobierno del Principado de Asturias, C/Coronel Aranda, 2 - Planta 3ª, 33005, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Alberto Fernández-Gil
- Department of Conservation Biology, Estación Biológica de Doñana CSIC, Avd. Americo Vespucio s/n, 41092, Seville, Spain
| | - Eloy Revilla
- Department of Conservation Biology, Estación Biológica de Doñana CSIC, Avd. Americo Vespucio s/n, 41092, Seville, Spain
| | | | - Filip Zięba
- Tatra National Park, Kuźnice 1, 34500, Zakopane, Poland
| | - Johanna Painer
- Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine, Savoyenstraße 1, 1160, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nuria Selva
- Institute of Nature Conservation, Polish Academy of Sciences, Adama Mickiewicza Av. 33, 31120, Kraków, Poland
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Rossini C, Ungerfeld R. Chemical profile of the cutaneous gland secretions from male pampas deer (
Ozotoceros bezoarticus
). J Mammal 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyv167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Various cutaneous glands have been identified as sources of chemical signals that mediate many social interactions in deer. The pampas deer, a species considered near threatened, inhabits grasslands of South America. In this work, the chemical compositions from preorbital, tarsal, and digital gland secretions of semi-captive males were characterized by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The composition of these secretions showed a great complexity, with 143 compounds detected. Hierarchical cluster and principal component analyses show no relation to age or secretion type. Five compound classes (esters, fatty alcohols, lactones, sterols, and sulphuretted) differed with glands. The chemical complexity of the secretions, the individual differences in the whole compounds composition, and the absence of clustering by age lead to the hypothesis that these secretions may encode at once for individual information and for social status information.
Varias glándulas cutáneas han sido identificadas como productoras de señales químicas que median interacciones sociales en losciervos. El venado de las pampas es una especie considerada casi amenazada que habita los pastizales de Sudamérica. En este trabajo se caracterizó la composición química de las secreciones de las glándulas preorbital, tarsal e interdigital de machos por cromatografía de gases-espectrometría de masas. Estas secreciones mostraron una gran complejidad en su composición, con 143 compuestos detectados. No se observó ninguna agrupación de compuestos relacionada con la edad o el tipo de secreción. Cinco clases de compuestos (ésteres, alcoholes grasos, lactonas, esteroles, y compuestos azufrados) difirieron de acuerdo al origen glandular. La complejidad química de las secreciones, las diferencias individuales en dicha composición, y la ausencia de agrupamiento por edad, llevan a postular la hipótesis de que estas secreciones pueden codificar a la vez tanto información individual como del estado social.
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9
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Structural diversity and possible functional roles of free fatty acids of the novel soil isolate Streptomyces sp. NP10. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:4815-33. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-014-6364-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Revised: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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10
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McLean S. Scent glands of the common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula). NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/03014223.2014.899506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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11
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Whittington CM, Belov K. Tracing monotreme venom evolution in the genomics era. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:1260-73. [PMID: 24699339 PMCID: PMC4014732 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6041260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Revised: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The monotremes (platypuses and echidnas) represent one of only four extant venomous mammalian lineages. Until recently, monotreme venom was poorly understood. However, the availability of the platypus genome and increasingly sophisticated genomic tools has allowed us to characterize platypus toxins, and provides a means of reconstructing the evolutionary history of monotreme venom. Here we review the physiology of platypus and echidna crural (venom) systems as well as pharmacological and genomic studies of monotreme toxins. Further, we synthesize current ideas about the evolution of the venom system, which in the platypus is likely to have been retained from a venomous ancestor, whilst being lost in the echidnas. We also outline several research directions and outstanding questions that would be productive to address in future research. An improved characterization of mammalian venoms will not only yield new toxins with potential therapeutic uses, but will also aid in our understanding of the way that this unusual trait evolves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla M Whittington
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia.
| | - Katherine Belov
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia.
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12
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Harris RL, Holland BR, Cameron EZ, Davies NW, Nicol SC. Chemical signals in the echidna: differences between seasons, sexes, individuals and gland types. J Zool (1987) 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R. L. Harris
- School of Biological Sciences; University of Tasmania; Hobart Tas. Australia
| | - B. R. Holland
- School of Physical Sciences; University of Tasmania; Hobart Tas. Australia
| | - E. Z. Cameron
- School of Biological Sciences; University of Tasmania; Hobart Tas. Australia
| | - N. W. Davies
- Central Science Laboratory; University of Tasmania; Hobart Tas. Australia
| | - S. C. Nicol
- School of Biological Sciences; University of Tasmania; Hobart Tas. Australia
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Harris RL, Nicol SC. Observations of breeding behaviour and possible infanticide in a wild population of Tasmanian echidnas (Tachyglossus aculeatus setosus). AUSTRALIAN MAMMALOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1071/am13011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We describe field observations of Tasmanian echidna behaviour, including possible infanticide, where males damaged and entered nursery burrows. We also present the second report of a female producing a second offspring within a single reproductive season after the loss of her first young at an early stage.
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14
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Wong ESW, Nicol S, Warren WC, Belov K. Echidna venom gland transcriptome provides insights into the evolution of monotreme venom. PLoS One 2013; 8:e79092. [PMID: 24265746 PMCID: PMC3827146 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0079092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Monotremes (echidna and platypus) are egg-laying mammals. One of their most unique characteristic is that males have venom/crural glands that are seasonally active. Male platypuses produce venom during the breeding season, delivered via spurs, to aid in competition against other males. Echidnas are not able to erect their spurs, but a milky secretion is produced by the gland during the breeding season. The function and molecular composition of echidna venom is as yet unknown. Hence, we compared the deeply sequenced transcriptome of an in-season echidna crural gland to that of a platypus and searched for putative venom genes to provide clues into the function of echidna venom and the evolutionary history of monotreme venom. We found that the echidna venom gland transcriptome was markedly different from the platypus with no correlation between the top 50 most highly expressed genes. Four peptides found in the venom of the platypus were detected in the echidna transcriptome. However, these genes were not highly expressed in echidna, suggesting that they are the remnants of the evolutionary history of the ancestral venom gland. Gene ontology terms associated with the top 100 most highly expressed genes in echidna, showed functional terms associated with steroidal and fatty acid production, suggesting that echidna “venom” may play a role in scent communication during the breeding season. The loss of the ability to erect the spur and other unknown evolutionary forces acting in the echidna lineage resulted in the gradual decay of venom components and the evolution of a new role for the crural gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily S. W. Wong
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, QLD, Australia
| | - Stewart Nicol
- School of Zoology, University of Tasmania, TAS, Australia
| | - Wesley C. Warren
- The Genome Institute, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Katherine Belov
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
- * E-mail:
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15
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Harris RL, Davies NW, Nicol SC. Identification of desmostanol as a novel vertebrate sterol in short-beaked echidna secretions. AUSTRALIAN MAMMALOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1071/am13002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Mass spectra and chromatographic data are presented to support the identification of cholest-24-en-3β-ol (desmostanol) in odorous secretions in Tasmanian short-beaked echidnas. This sterol has previously been described only in marine invertebrates and phytoplankton, and may have a role in chemical communication in the echidna.
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