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Liu J, Jiang G, Zhang H, Zhang H, Jia X, Gan Z, Yu H. Effects of Hibernation on Colonic Epithelial Tissue and Gut Microbiota in Wild Chipmunks ( Tamias sibiricus). Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1498. [PMID: 38791715 PMCID: PMC11117362 DOI: 10.3390/ani14101498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in the host's metabolic processes. Many studies have shown significant changes in the gut microbiota of mammals during hibernation to adapt to the changes in the external environment, but there is limited research on the colonic epithelial tissue and gut microbiota of the wild chipmunks during hibernation. This study analyzed the diversity, composition, and function of the gut microbiota of the wild chipmunk during hibernation using 16S rRNA gene high-throughput sequencing technology, and further conducted histological analysis of the colon. Histological analysis of the colon showed an increase in goblet cells in the hibernation group, which was an adaptive change to long-term fasting during hibernation. The dominant gut microbial phyla were Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria, and the relative abundance of them changed significantly. The analysis of gut microbiota structural differences indicated that the relative abundance of Helicobacter typhlonius and Mucispirillum schaedleri increased significantly, while unclassified Prevotella-9, unclassified Prevotellaceae-UCG-001, unclassified Prevotellaceae-UCG-003 and other species of Prevotella decreased significantly at the species level. Alpha diversity analysis showed that hibernation increased the diversity and richness of the gut microbiota. Beta diversity analysis revealed significant differences in gut microbiota diversity between the hibernation group and the control group. PICRUSt2 functional prediction analysis of the gut microbiota showed that 15 pathways, such as lipid metabolism, xenobiotics biodegradation and metabolism, amino acid metabolism, environmental adaptation, and neurodegenerative diseases, were significantly enriched in the hibernation group, while 12 pathways, including carbohydrate metabolism, replication and repair, translation, and transcription, were significantly enriched in the control group. It can be seen that during hibernation, the gut microbiota of the wild chipmunk changes towards taxa that are beneficial for reducing carbohydrate consumption, increasing fat consumption, and adapting more strongly to environmental changes in order to better provide energy for the body and ensure normal life activities during hibernation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juntao Liu
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China; (J.L.); (G.J.); (H.Z.); (H.Z.); (X.J.)
- School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China;
| | - Guangyu Jiang
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China; (J.L.); (G.J.); (H.Z.); (H.Z.); (X.J.)
- School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China;
| | - Hongrui Zhang
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China; (J.L.); (G.J.); (H.Z.); (H.Z.); (X.J.)
- School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China;
| | - Haiying Zhang
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China; (J.L.); (G.J.); (H.Z.); (H.Z.); (X.J.)
| | - Xiaoyan Jia
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China; (J.L.); (G.J.); (H.Z.); (H.Z.); (X.J.)
| | - Zhenwei Gan
- School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China;
| | - Huimei Yu
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China; (J.L.); (G.J.); (H.Z.); (H.Z.); (X.J.)
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Popov IV, Berezinskaia IS, Popov IV, Martiusheva IB, Tkacheva EV, Gorobets VE, Tikhmeneva IA, Aleshukina AV, Tverdokhlebova TI, Chikindas ML, Venema K, Ermakov AM. Cultivable Gut Microbiota in Synanthropic Bats: Shifts of Its Composition and Diversity Associated with Hibernation. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3658. [PMID: 38067008 PMCID: PMC10705225 DOI: 10.3390/ani13233658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The role of bats in the global microbial ecology no doubt is significant due to their unique immune responses, ability to fly, and long lifespan, all contributing to pathogen spread. Some of these animals hibernate during winter, which results in the altering of their physiology. However, gut microbiota shifts during hibernation is little studied. In this research, we studied cultivable gut microbiota composition and diversity of Nyctalus noctula before, during, and after hibernation in a bat rehabilitation center. Gut microorganisms were isolated on a broad spectrum of culture media, counted, and identified with mass spectrometry. Linear modeling was used to investigate associations between microorganism abundance and N. noctula physiological status, and alpha- and beta-diversity indexes were used to explore diversity changes. As a result, most notable changes were observed in Serratia liquefaciens, Hafnia alvei, Staphylococcus sciuri, and Staphylococcus xylosus, which were significantly more highly abundant in hibernating bats, while Citrobacter freundii, Klebsiella oxytoca, Providencia rettgeri, Citrobacter braakii, and Pedicoccus pentosaceus were more abundant in active bats before hibernation. The alpha-diversity was the lowest in hibernating bats, while the beta-diversity differed significantly among all studied periods. Overall, this study shows that hibernation contributes to changes in bat cultivable gut microbiota composition and diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor V. Popov
- Faculty “Bioengineering and Veterinary Medicine” and Center for Agrobiotechnology, Don State Technical University, 344000 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; (I.V.P.); (E.V.T.); (V.E.G.); (I.A.T.); (M.L.C.); (A.M.E.)
- Division of Immunobiology and Biomedicine, Center of Genetics and Life Sciences, Sirius University of Science and Technology, 354340 Federal Territory Sirius, Russia
- Centre for Healthy Eating & Food Innovation (HEFI), Maastricht University—Campus Venlo, 5928 SZ Venlo, The Netherlands;
| | - Iraida S. Berezinskaia
- Rostov Research Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, 344010 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; (I.S.B.); (I.B.M.); (A.V.A.)
| | - Ilia V. Popov
- Faculty “Bioengineering and Veterinary Medicine” and Center for Agrobiotechnology, Don State Technical University, 344000 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; (I.V.P.); (E.V.T.); (V.E.G.); (I.A.T.); (M.L.C.); (A.M.E.)
| | - Irina B. Martiusheva
- Rostov Research Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, 344010 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; (I.S.B.); (I.B.M.); (A.V.A.)
| | - Elizaveta V. Tkacheva
- Faculty “Bioengineering and Veterinary Medicine” and Center for Agrobiotechnology, Don State Technical University, 344000 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; (I.V.P.); (E.V.T.); (V.E.G.); (I.A.T.); (M.L.C.); (A.M.E.)
| | - Vladislav E. Gorobets
- Faculty “Bioengineering and Veterinary Medicine” and Center for Agrobiotechnology, Don State Technical University, 344000 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; (I.V.P.); (E.V.T.); (V.E.G.); (I.A.T.); (M.L.C.); (A.M.E.)
| | - Iuliia A. Tikhmeneva
- Faculty “Bioengineering and Veterinary Medicine” and Center for Agrobiotechnology, Don State Technical University, 344000 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; (I.V.P.); (E.V.T.); (V.E.G.); (I.A.T.); (M.L.C.); (A.M.E.)
| | - Anna V. Aleshukina
- Rostov Research Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, 344010 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; (I.S.B.); (I.B.M.); (A.V.A.)
| | - Tatiana I. Tverdokhlebova
- Rostov Research Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, 344010 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; (I.S.B.); (I.B.M.); (A.V.A.)
| | - Michael L. Chikindas
- Faculty “Bioengineering and Veterinary Medicine” and Center for Agrobiotechnology, Don State Technical University, 344000 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; (I.V.P.); (E.V.T.); (V.E.G.); (I.A.T.); (M.L.C.); (A.M.E.)
- Health Promoting Naturals Laboratory, School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, Rutgers State University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
- Department of General Hygiene, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119435 Moscow, Russia
| | - Koen Venema
- Centre for Healthy Eating & Food Innovation (HEFI), Maastricht University—Campus Venlo, 5928 SZ Venlo, The Netherlands;
| | - Alexey M. Ermakov
- Faculty “Bioengineering and Veterinary Medicine” and Center for Agrobiotechnology, Don State Technical University, 344000 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; (I.V.P.); (E.V.T.); (V.E.G.); (I.A.T.); (M.L.C.); (A.M.E.)
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Zhao H, Jiang F, Gu H, Gao H, Zhang J, Zhang M, Zhang T. Seasonal Variation of Gut Microbial Composition and Metabolism in Tibetan antelopes in Hoh Xil National Nature Reserve. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3569. [PMID: 38003186 PMCID: PMC10668778 DOI: 10.3390/ani13223569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The Tibetan antelope is an endangered species suffering from poaching and habitat fragmentation. The intestinal flora and metabolites play a crucial role in the physiological homeostasis of hosts, which are influenced by various environmental factors like seasonal variation. In this particular research, our main goal was to explore the alterations in the metabolism and gut microbiota of Tibetan antelopes between the cold season (XB) and warm season (DA), using untargeted metabolomics and 16S rRNA gene-sequencing analyses. The findings indicated that Tibetan antelopes had a higher alpha-diversity of intestinal microbes during the cold season than during the warm season. Principal co-ordinate analysis revealed notable seasonal discrepancies in the function and structure of intestinal microbes in Tibetan antelopes. The relative abundance of Firmicutes was significantly increased during the cold season compared to during the warm season. Furthermore, the Tibetan antelope's primary metabolic functions of the intestinal micro-organisms were significantly higher during the cold season. The untargeted metabolomics analysis results showed a total of 532 metabolites that were significantly different between the cold season and warm season groups. These metabolites were found to be enriched in a total of 62 metabolic pathways. Among the most significant pathways of enrichment were the purine metabolism and pyrimidine metabolism. The levels of related metabolites in those pathways were remarkably higher in the warm season compared to the cold season. The comprehensive analysis of 16S rRNA and the metabolome reveals there is a significant correlation between differential microbiota and differential metabolites. Therefore, the gut microbiota changes caused by seasonal changes influenced the metabolites as well. This research reveals the function of seasonal changes in the intestinal flora and metabolites in the adaptation of Tibetan antelopes to environmental fluctuations and supplies a theoretical basis for instructing the protection management of Tibetan antelopes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810001, China; (H.Z.)
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Ecological Genomics, Xining 810001, China
| | - Feng Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810001, China; (H.Z.)
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Ecological Genomics, Xining 810001, China
| | - Haifeng Gu
- Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810001, China; (H.Z.)
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Ecological Genomics, Xining 810001, China
| | - Hongmei Gao
- Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810001, China; (H.Z.)
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Ecological Genomics, Xining 810001, China
| | - Jingjie Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810001, China; (H.Z.)
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Ecological Genomics, Xining 810001, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810001, China; (H.Z.)
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Ecological Genomics, Xining 810001, China
| | - Tongzuo Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810001, China; (H.Z.)
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Ecological Genomics, Xining 810001, China
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Zhai J, Sun X, Lu R, Hu X, Huang Z. Bibliometric Analysis of Global Trends in Research on Seasonal Variations in Gut Microbiota from 2012 to 2022. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2125. [PMID: 37630685 PMCID: PMC10458723 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11082125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Seasons are the important influencing factor for gut microbiota, which in turn affects the ecology and evolution of the host. The seasonal variation in gut microbiota has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers and professionals worldwide. However, studies of seasonal variations in gut microbiota have not been systematically analyzed by bibliometrics or visual analysis. This study is based on 271 publications from 2012 to 2022 in the Web of Science Core Collection database (WOSCC) to analyze hot spots and trends in this field. The collaborations between different countries, institutions, authors, journals, and keywords were bibliometrically analyzed using Excel, CiteSpace (Version 6.2. R4), and VOSviewer (version 1.6.19) software. The number of publications has been increasing rapidly and shows a general upward trend. China and the Chinese Academy of Sciences are the country and institution contributing the most, respectively. The research hotspots and trends mainly include the diversity of gut microbiota communities in different seasons, the relationship between diet and gut microbiota in seasonal changes, and the relationship between gut microbiota and evolutionary adaptation in seasonal changes. This is the first bibliometric and visualization analysis of seasonal variations in gut microbiota, which may advance this field and lay the foundation for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiancheng Zhai
- Natural Reserve Planning and Research Institute, East China University of Technology, Nanchang 330013, China
- School of Earth Sciences, East China University of Technology, Nanchang 330013, China
| | - Xiao Sun
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330029, China
| | - Rui Lu
- School of Earth Sciences, East China University of Technology, Nanchang 330013, China
| | - Xueqin Hu
- School of Earth Sciences, East China University of Technology, Nanchang 330013, China
| | - Zhiqiang Huang
- Natural Reserve Planning and Research Institute, East China University of Technology, Nanchang 330013, China
- School of Earth Sciences, East China University of Technology, Nanchang 330013, China
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Tong Q, Dong WJ, Xu MD, Hu ZF, Guo P, Han XY, Cui LY. Characteristics and a comparison of the gut microbiota in two frog species at the beginning and end of hibernation. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1057398. [PMID: 37206336 PMCID: PMC10191234 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1057398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Season has been suggested to contribute to variation in the gut microbiota of animals. The complicated relationships between amphibians and their gut microbiota and how they change throughout the year require more research. Short-term and long-term hypothermic fasting of amphibians may affect gut microbiota differently; however, these changes have not been explored. In this study, the composition and characteristics of the gut microbiota of Rana amurensis and Rana dybowskii during summer, autumn (short-term fasting) and winter (long-term fasting) were studied by high-throughput Illumina sequencing. Both frog species had higher gut microbiota alpha diversity in summer than autumn and winter, but no significant variations between autumn and spring. The summer, autumn, and spring gut microbiotas of both species differed, as did the autumn and winter microbiomes. In summer, autumn and winter, the dominant phyla in the gut microbiota of both species were Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria. All animals have 10 OTUs (>90% of all 52 frogs). Both species had 23 OTUs (>90% of all 28 frogs) in winter, accounting for 47.49 ± 3.84% and 63.17 ± 3.69% of their relative abundance, respectively. PICRUSt2 analysis showed that the predominant functions of the gut microbiota in these two Rana were focused on carbohydrate metabolism, Global and overview maps, Glycan biosynthesis metabolism, membrane transport, and replication and repair, translation. The BugBase analysis estimated that among the seasons in the R. amurensis group, Facultatively_Anaerobic, Forms_Biofilms, Gram_Negative, Gram_Positive, Potentially_Pathogenic were significantly different. However, there was no difference for R. dybowskii. The research will reveal how the gut microbiota of amphibians adapts to environmental changes during hibernation, aid in the conservation of endangered amphibians, particularly those that hibernate, and advance microbiota research by elucidating the role of microbiota under various physiological states and environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Tong
- School of Biology and Agriculture, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
- Hejiang Forestry Research Institute of Heilongjiang Province, Jiamusi, China
| | - Wen-jing Dong
- School of Biology and Agriculture, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, China
| | - Ming-da Xu
- School of Biology and Agriculture, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, China
| | - Zong-fu Hu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Peng Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Xiao-yun Han
- School of Biology and Agriculture, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, China
| | - Li-yong Cui
- Hejiang Forestry Research Institute of Heilongjiang Province, Jiamusi, China
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Kissmann AK, Rosenau F, Herwig A, Diedrich V. Short Photoperiod-Dependent Enrichment of Akkermansia spec. as the Major Change in the Intestinal Microbiome of Djungarian Hamsters (Phodopus sungorus). Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076605. [PMID: 37047584 PMCID: PMC10095574 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The Djungarian hamster (Phodopus sungorus) is a prominent model organism for seasonal acclimatization, showing drastic whole-body physiological adjustments to an energetically challenging environment, which are considered to also involve the gut microbiome. Fecal samples of hamsters in long photoperiod and again after twelve weeks in short photoperiod were analyzed by 16S-rRNA sequencing to evaluate seasonal changes in the respective gut microbiomes. In both photoperiods, the overall composition was stable in the major superordinate phyla of the microbiota, with distinct and delicate changes of abundance in phyla representing each <1% of all. Elusimicrobia, Tenericutes, and Verrucomicrobia were exclusively present in short photoperiod hamsters. In contrast to Elusimicrobium and Aneroplasma as representatives of Elusimicrobia and Tenericutes, Akkermansia muciniphila is a prominent gut microbiome inhabitant well described as important in the health context of animals and humans, including neurodegenerative diseases and obesity. Since diet was not changed, Akkermansia enrichment appears to be a direct consequence of short photoperiod acclimation. Future research will investigate whether the Djungarian hamster intestinal microbiome is responsible for or responsive to seasonal acclimation, focusing on probiotic supplementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Kathrin Kissmann
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Frank Rosenau
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Annika Herwig
- Institute of Neurobiology, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Victoria Diedrich
- Institute of Neurobiology, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
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Ducarmon QR, Grundler F, Le Maho Y, Wilhelmi de Toledo F, Zeller G, Habold C, Mesnage R. Remodelling of the intestinal ecosystem during caloric restriction and fasting. Trends Microbiol 2023:S0966-842X(23)00057-4. [PMID: 37031065 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2023.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/10/2023]
Abstract
Benefits of fasting and caloric restriction on host metabolic health are well established, but less is known about the effects on the gut microbiome and how this impacts renewal of the intestinal mucosa. What has been repeatedly shown during fasting, however, is that bacteria utilising host-derived substrates proliferate at the expense of those relying on dietary substrates. Considering the increased recognition of the gut microbiome's role in maintaining host (metabolic) health, disentangling host-microbe interactions and establishing their physiological relevance in the context of fasting and caloric restriction is crucial. Such insights could aid in moving away from associations of gut bacterial signatures with metabolic diseases consistently reported in observational studies to potentially establishing causality. Therefore, this review aims to summarise what is currently known or still controversial about the interplay between fasting and caloric restriction, the gut microbiome and intestinal tissue physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quinten R Ducarmon
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Franziska Grundler
- Buchinger Wilhelmi Clinic, Wilhelmi-Beck-Straße 27, 88662 Überlingen, Germany
| | - Yvon Le Maho
- University of Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC UMR, 7178, Strasbourg, France; Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Monaco, Monaco
| | | | - Georg Zeller
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Caroline Habold
- University of Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC UMR, 7178, Strasbourg, France.
| | - Robin Mesnage
- Buchinger Wilhelmi Clinic, Wilhelmi-Beck-Straße 27, 88662 Überlingen, Germany; King's College London, Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, London, UK.
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