1
|
Samylina OS, Kosyakova AI, Krylov AA, Sorokin DY, Pimenov NV. Salinity-induced succession of phototrophic communities in a southwestern Siberian soda lake during the solar activity cycle. Heliyon 2024; 10:e26120. [PMID: 38404883 PMCID: PMC10884861 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
A variety of lakes located in the dry steppe area of southwestern Siberia are exposed to rapid climatic changes, including intra-century cycles with alternating dry and wet phases driven by solar activity. As a result, the salt lakes of that region experience significant fluctuations in water level and salinity, which have an essential impact on the indigenous microbial communities. But there are few microbiological studies that have analyzed this impact, despite its importance for understanding the functioning of regional water ecosystems. This work is a retrospective study aimed at analyzing how solar activity-related changes in hydrological regime affect phototrophic microbial communities using the example of the shallow soda lake Tanatar VI, located in the Kulunda steppe (Altai Region, Russia, southwestern Siberia). The main approach used in this study was the comparison of hydrochemical and microscopic data obtained during annual field work with satellite and solar activity data for the 12-year observation period (2011-2022). The occurrence of 33 morphotypes of cyanobacteria, two key morphotypes of chlorophytes, and four morphotypes of anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria was analyzed due to their easily recognizable morphology. During the study period, the lake surface changed threefold and the salinity changed by more than an order of magnitude, which strongly correlated with the phases of the solar activity cycles. The periods of high (2011-2014; 100-250 g/L), medium (2015-2016; 60 g/L), extremely low (2017-2020; 13-16 g/L), and low (2021-2022; 23-34 g/L) salinity with unique biodiversity of phototrophic communities were distinguished. This study shows that solar activity cycles determine the dynamics of the total salinity of a southwestern Siberian soda lake, which in turn determines the communities and microorganisms that will occur in the lake, ultimately leading to cyclical changes in alternative states of the ecosystem (dynamic stability).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olga S. Samylina
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology, Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 60 let Oktjabrja pr-t, 7-2, Moscow, 117312, Russia
| | - Anastasia I. Kosyakova
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology, Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 60 let Oktjabrja pr-t, 7-2, Moscow, 117312, Russia
- Faculty of Soil Science, Moscow State University, GSP-1, 1-12 Leninskie Gory, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Artem A. Krylov
- Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Nakhimovskiy Prospekt, 36, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Dimitry Yu. Sorokin
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology, Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 60 let Oktjabrja pr-t, 7-2, Moscow, 117312, Russia
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Nikolay V. Pimenov
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology, Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 60 let Oktjabrja pr-t, 7-2, Moscow, 117312, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Georgieva ML, Bilanenko EN, Ponizovskaya VB, Kokaeva LY, Georgiev AA, Efimenko TA, Markelova NN, Kuvarina AE, Sadykova VS. Haloalkalitolerant Fungi from Sediments of the Big Tambukan Saline Lake (Northern Caucasus): Diversity and Antimicrobial Potential. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2587. [PMID: 37894245 PMCID: PMC10609068 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11102587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
We have performed a characterization of cultivated haloalkalitolerant fungi from the sediments of Big Tambukan Lake in order to assess their biodiversity and antimicrobial activity. This saline, slightly alkaline lake is known as a source of therapeutic sulfide mud used in sanatoria of the Caucasian Mineral Waters, Russia. Though data on bacteria and algae observed in this lake are available in the literature, data on fungi adapted to the conditions of the lake are lacking. The diversity of haloalkalitolerant fungi was low and represented by ascomycetes of the genera Acremonium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Chordomyces, Emericellopsis, Fusarium, Gibellulopsis, Myriodontium, Penicillium, and Pseudeurotium. Most of the fungi were characterized by moderate alkaline resistance, and they tolerated NaCl concentrations up to 10% w/v. The analysis of the antimicrobial activity of fungi showed that 87.5% of all strains were active against Bacillus subtilis, and 39.6% were also determined to be effective against Escherichia coli. The majority of the strains were also active against Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans, about 66.7% and 62.5%, respectively. These studies indicate, for the first time, the presence of polyextremotolerant fungi in the sediments of Big Tambukan Lake, which probably reflects their involvement in the formation of therapeutic muds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marina L. Georgieva
- Gause Institute of New Antibiotics, St. Bolshaya Pirogovskaya 11, 119021 Moscow, Russia; (T.A.E.); (N.N.M.); (A.E.K.)
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-12 Leninskie Gory, 119234 Moscow, Russia; (E.N.B.); (V.B.P.); (L.Y.K.); (A.A.G.)
| | - Elena N. Bilanenko
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-12 Leninskie Gory, 119234 Moscow, Russia; (E.N.B.); (V.B.P.); (L.Y.K.); (A.A.G.)
| | - Valeria B. Ponizovskaya
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-12 Leninskie Gory, 119234 Moscow, Russia; (E.N.B.); (V.B.P.); (L.Y.K.); (A.A.G.)
| | - Lyudmila Y. Kokaeva
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-12 Leninskie Gory, 119234 Moscow, Russia; (E.N.B.); (V.B.P.); (L.Y.K.); (A.A.G.)
- Faculty of Soil Sciences, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-12 Leninskie Gory, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Anton A. Georgiev
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-12 Leninskie Gory, 119234 Moscow, Russia; (E.N.B.); (V.B.P.); (L.Y.K.); (A.A.G.)
| | - Tatiana A. Efimenko
- Gause Institute of New Antibiotics, St. Bolshaya Pirogovskaya 11, 119021 Moscow, Russia; (T.A.E.); (N.N.M.); (A.E.K.)
| | - Natalia N. Markelova
- Gause Institute of New Antibiotics, St. Bolshaya Pirogovskaya 11, 119021 Moscow, Russia; (T.A.E.); (N.N.M.); (A.E.K.)
| | - Anastasia E. Kuvarina
- Gause Institute of New Antibiotics, St. Bolshaya Pirogovskaya 11, 119021 Moscow, Russia; (T.A.E.); (N.N.M.); (A.E.K.)
| | - Vera S. Sadykova
- Gause Institute of New Antibiotics, St. Bolshaya Pirogovskaya 11, 119021 Moscow, Russia; (T.A.E.); (N.N.M.); (A.E.K.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Boltyanskaya YV, Kevbrin VV, Grouzdev DS, Detkova EN, Koziaeva VV, Novikov AA, Zhilina TN. Halonatronomonas betaini gen. nov., sp. nov., a haloalkaliphilic isolate from soda lake capable of betaine degradation and proposal of Halarsenatibacteraceae fam. nov. and Halothermotrichaceae fam. nov. within the order Halanaerobiales. Syst Appl Microbiol 2023; 46:126407. [PMID: 36906934 DOI: 10.1016/j.syapm.2023.126407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
A search for the organisms responsible for anaerobic betaine degradation in soda lakes resulted in isolation of a novel bacterial strain, designated Z-7014T. The cells were Gram-stain-negative, non-endospore-forming rods. Growth occurred at 8-52 °C (optimum 40-45 °C), pH 7.1-10.1 (optimum pH 8.1-8.8) and 1.0-3.5 M Na+ (optimum 1.8 M), i.e. it can be regarded as a haloalkaliphile. The strain utilized a limited range of substrates, mostly peptonaceous but not amino acids, and was able to degrade betaine. Growth on betaine occurred only in the presence of peptonaceous substances which could not be replaced by vitamins. The G + C content of the genomic DNA of strain Z-7014T was 36.1 mol%. The major cellular fatty acids (>5% of the total) were C16:0 DMA, C18: 0 DMA, C16:1ω8, C16:0, C18:1 DMA, C16:1 DMA, C18:1ω9, and C18:0. Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequence revealed that strain Z-7014T formed a distinct evolutionary lineage in the order Halanaerobiales with the highest similarity to Halarsenitibacter silvermanii SLAS-1T (83.6%), Halothermothrix orenii H168T (85.6%), and Halocella cellulosilytica DSM 7362T (85.6%). AAI and POCP values between strain Z-7014T and type strains of the order Halanaerobiales were 51.7-57.8%, and 33.8-58.3%, respectively. Based on polyphasic results including phylogenomic data, the novel strain could be distinguished from other genera, which suggests that strain Z-7014T represents a novel species of a new genus, for which the name Halonatronomonas betaini gen. nov., sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is Z-7014T (=KCTC 25237T = VKM B-3506T). On the basis of phylogenomic data, it is also proposed to evolve two novel families Halarsenitibacteraceae fam. nov. and Halothermotrichaceae fam. nov. within the current order Halanaerobiales.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yulia V Boltyanskaya
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 33, bld. 2, Leninsky Ave., Moscow 119071, Russia
| | - Vadim V Kevbrin
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 33, bld. 2, Leninsky Ave., Moscow 119071, Russia.
| | | | - Ekaterina N Detkova
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 33, bld. 2, Leninsky Ave., Moscow 119071, Russia
| | - Veronika V Koziaeva
- Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 33, bld. 2, Leninsky Ave., Moscow 119071, Russia
| | | | - Tatjana N Zhilina
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 33, bld. 2, Leninsky Ave., Moscow 119071, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Maltsev A, Zelenina D, Safonov A. Microbial Diversity and Authigenic Mineral Formation of Modern Bottom Sediments in the Littoral Zone of Lake Issyk-Kul, Kyrgyz Republic (Central Asia). BIOLOGY 2023; 12:642. [PMID: 37237455 PMCID: PMC10215221 DOI: 10.3390/biology12050642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
This article presents geochemical, mineralogical and microbiological characteristics of five samples of modern bottom sediments in the littoral zone of the high-mountain salty lake Issyk-Kul. The 16S rRNA gene sequencing method shows that the microbial community consists of organic carbon degraders (representatives of phyla: Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi, Bacteroidota and Verrucomicrobiota and families Anaerolineaceae and Hungateiclostridiaceae), photosynthetic microorganisms (representatives of Chloroflexi, phototrophic Acidobacteria, purple sulphur bacteria Chromatiaceae and cyanobacteria) and bacteria of the reducing branches of the sulphur biogeochemical cycle (representatives of Desulfobacterota, Desulfosarcinaceae and Desulfocapsaceae). The participation of microorganisms in processes in the formation of a number of authigenic minerals (calcite, framboidal pyrite, barite and amorphous Si) is established. The high diversity of microbial communities indicates the presence of labile organic components involved in modern biogeochemical processes in sediments. The active destruction of organic matter begins at the water-sediment interface.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anton Maltsev
- V.S. Sobolev Institute of Geology and Mineralogy Siberian Branch, RAS, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
| | - Darya Zelenina
- A.N. Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119071, Russia
| | - Alexey Safonov
- A.N. Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119071, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Nitrogen Fixation Activity and Genome Analysis of a Moderately Haloalkaliphilic Anoxygenic Phototrophic Bacterium Rhodovulum tesquicola. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10081615. [PMID: 36014033 PMCID: PMC9412634 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10081615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Revised: 07/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The genome of the moderately haloalkaliphilic diazotrophic anoxygenic phototrophic bacterium Rhodovulum tesquicola A-36sT isolated from an alkaline lake was analyzed and compared to the genomes of the closest species Rhodovulum steppense A-20sT and Rhodovulum strictum DSM 11289T. The genomic features of three organisms are quite similar, reflecting their ecological and physiological role of facultative photoheterotrophs. Nevertheless, the nitrogenase activity of the pure cultures of the studied bacteria differed significantly: the highest rate (4066 nmoles C2H2/mg of dry weight per hour) was demonstrated by Rhodovulum strictum while the rates in Rhodovulum tesquicola and Rhodovulum steppense were an order of magnitude lower (278 and 523 nmoles C2H2/mg of dry weight per hour, respectively). This difference can be attributed to the presence of an additional nitrogenase operon found exclusively in R. strictum and to the structural variation in nitrogenase operon in R. tesquicola.
Collapse
|
6
|
Limnospira fusiformis harbors dinitrogenase reductase (nifH)-like genes, but does not show N2 fixation activity. ALGAL RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2022.102771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
7
|
Gorlenko VM, Bryantseva IA, Samylina OS, Ashikhmin AA, Sinetova MA, Kostrikina NA, Kozyaeva VV. Filamentous Anoxygenic Phototrophic Bacteria in Microbial Communities of the Kulunda Steppe Soda Lakes (Altai Krai, Russia). Microbiology (Reading) 2020. [DOI: 10.1134/s0026261720060053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
|
8
|
Zavarzina DG, Zhilina TN, Kostrikina NA, Toshchakov SV, Kublanov IV. Isachenkonia alkalipeptolytica gen. nov. sp. nov., a new anaerobic, alkaliphilic proteolytic bacterium capable of reducing Fe(III) and sulfur. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2020; 70:4730-4738. [PMID: 32697189 DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.004341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
An obligately alkaliphilic, anaerobic, proteolytic bacterium was isolated from a sample of Tanatar III soda lake sediment (Altai region, Russia) and designated as strain Z-1701T. Cells of strain Z-1701T were short, straight, motile Gram-stain-positive rods. Growth of Z-1701T obligately depended on the presence of sodium carbonate. Strain Z-1701T could utilize various peptides mixtures, such as beef and yeast extracts, peptone, soytone, trypticase and tryptone, as well as such proteins as albumin, gelatin and sodium caseinate. It was able to grow oligotrophically with 0.02 g l-1 yeast extract as the sole energy and carbon source. Carbohydrates did not support the growth of strain Z-1701T. The main products released during the growth of strain Z-1701T on tryptone were formate, acetate and ammonium. Strain Z-1701T was able to reduce ferrihydrite, Fe(III)-EDTA, anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate and elemental sulfur, using proteinaceous substrates as electron donors. In all cases the presence of the electron acceptor in the medium stimulated growth. The main cellular fatty acids were iso-C15 : 0, iso-C15 : 0 aldehyde, iso-C15 : 1 ω6, C16 : 0, iso-C17 : 0 aldehyde, C16 : 0 aldehyde and C14 : 0. The DNA G+C content of the isolate was 43.9 mol%. Phylogenetic analysis based on the concatenated alignment of 120 protein-marker sequences revealed that strain Z-1701T falls into a cluster with the genus Tindallia, family Clostridiaceae. 16S rRNA gene sequence identity between strain Z-1701T and Tindallia species were 88.3-89.75 %. On the basis of its phenotypic characteristics and phylogenetic position, the novel isolate is considered to be a representative of a novel genus and species for which the name Isachenkonia alkalipeptolytica gen. nov., sp. nov. is proposed, with Z-1701T (=JCM 32929Т=DSM 109060Т=VKM B-3261Т) as its type strain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daria G Zavarzina
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology of Federal Research Centre "Fundamentals of Biotechnology" of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 60-let Oktyabrya prospect 7/2, 117312, Moscow, Russia
| | - Tatyana N Zhilina
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology of Federal Research Centre "Fundamentals of Biotechnology" of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 60-let Oktyabrya prospect 7/2, 117312, Moscow, Russia
| | - Nadegda A Kostrikina
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology of Federal Research Centre "Fundamentals of Biotechnology" of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 60-let Oktyabrya prospect 7/2, 117312, Moscow, Russia
| | - Stepan V Toshchakov
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology of Federal Research Centre "Fundamentals of Biotechnology" of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 60-let Oktyabrya prospect 7/2, 117312, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ilya V Kublanov
- Winogradsky Institute of Microbiology of Federal Research Centre "Fundamentals of Biotechnology" of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 60-let Oktyabrya prospect 7/2, 117312, Moscow, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Unexpected Abundance and Diversity of Phototrophs in Mats from Morphologically Variable Microbialites in Great Salt Lake, Utah. Appl Environ Microbiol 2020; 86:AEM.00165-20. [PMID: 32198176 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00165-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial mat communities are associated with extensive (∼700 km2) and morphologically variable carbonate structures, termed microbialites, in the hypersaline Great Salt Lake (GSL), Utah. However, whether the composition of GSL mat communities covaries with microbialite morphology and lake environment is unknown. Moreover, the potential adaptations that allow the establishment of these extensive mat communities at high salinity (14% to 17% total salts) are poorly understood. To address these questions, microbial mats were sampled from seven locations in the south arm of GSL representing different lake environments and microbialite morphologies. Despite the morphological differences, microbialite-associated mats were taxonomically similar and were dominated by the cyanobacterium Euhalothece and several heterotrophic bacteria. Metagenomic sequencing of a representative mat revealed Euhalothece and subdominant Thiohalocapsa populations that harbor the Calvin cycle and nitrogenase, suggesting they supply fixed carbon and nitrogen to heterotrophic bacteria. Fifteen of the next sixteen most abundant taxa are inferred to be aerobic heterotrophs and, surprisingly, harbor reaction center, rhodopsin, and/or bacteriochlorophyll biosynthesis proteins, suggesting aerobic photoheterotrophic (APH) capabilities. Importantly, proteins involved in APH are enriched in the GSL community relative to that in microbialite mat communities from lower salinity environments. These findings indicate that the ability to integrate light into energy metabolism is a key adaptation allowing for robust mat development in the hypersaline GSL.IMPORTANCE The earliest evidence of life on Earth is from organosedimentary structures, termed microbialites, preserved in 3.481-billion-year-old (Ga) rocks. Phototrophic microbial mats form in association with an ∼700-km2 expanse of morphologically diverse microbialites in the hypersaline Great Salt Lake (GSL), Utah. Here, we show taxonomically similar microbial mat communities are associated with morphologically diverse microbialites across the lake. Metagenomic sequencing reveals an abundance and diversity of autotrophic and heterotrophic taxa capable of harvesting light energy to drive metabolism. The unexpected abundance of and diversity in the mechanisms of harvesting light energy observed in GSL mat populations likely function to minimize niche overlap among coinhabiting taxa, provide a mechanism(s) to increase energy yield and osmotic balance during salt stress, and enhance fitness. Together, these physiological benefits promote the formation of robust mats that, in turn, influence the formation of morphologically diverse microbialite structures that can be imprinted in the rock record.
Collapse
|
10
|
Corral P, Amoozegar MA, Ventosa A. Halophiles and Their Biomolecules: Recent Advances and Future Applications in Biomedicine. Mar Drugs 2019; 18:md18010033. [PMID: 31906001 PMCID: PMC7024382 DOI: 10.3390/md18010033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Revised: 12/21/2019] [Accepted: 12/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The organisms thriving under extreme conditions better than any other organism living on Earth, fascinate by their hostile growing parameters, physiological features, and their production of valuable bioactive metabolites. This is the case of microorganisms (bacteria, archaea, and fungi) that grow optimally at high salinities and are able to produce biomolecules of pharmaceutical interest for therapeutic applications. As along as the microbiota is being approached by massive sequencing, novel insights are revealing the environmental conditions on which the compounds are produced in the microbial community without more stress than sharing the same substratum with their peers, the salt. In this review are reported the molecules described and produced by halophilic microorganisms with a spectrum of action in vitro: antimicrobial and anticancer. The action mechanisms of these molecules, the urgent need to introduce alternative lead compounds and the current aspects on the exploitation and its limitations are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Corral
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy;
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
| | - Mohammad A. Amoozegar
- Department of Microbiology, School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran 14155-6955, Iran;
| | - Antonio Ventosa
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-954556765
| |
Collapse
|