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Seth-Smith H, Bommana S, Dean D, Read TD, Marti H. Chlamydia suis undergoes interclade recombination promoting Tet-island exchange. BMC Genomics 2024; 25:724. [PMID: 39060998 PMCID: PMC11282597 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-024-10606-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The obligate intracellular bacterial family Chlamydiaceae comprises a number of different species that cause disease in various vertebrate hosts including humans. Chlamydia suis, primarily found in the gastrointestinal tract of pigs, is the only species of the Chlamydiaceae family to have naturally gained tetracycline resistance (TetR), through a genomic island (Tet-island), integrated into the middle of chromosomal invasin-like gene inv. Previous studies have hypothesised that the uptake of the Tet-island from a host outside the Chlamydiaceae family was a unique event, followed by spread among C. suis through homologous recombination. In vitro recombination studies have shown that Tet-island exchange between C. suis strains is possible. Our aim in this study was to gain a deeper understanding of the interclade recombination of the Tet-island, among currently circulating C. suis field strains compared to in vitro-generated recombinants, using published whole genome sequences of C. suis field strains (n = 35) and in vitro-generated recombinants (n = 63). RESULTS We found that the phylogeny of inv better reflected the phylogeny of the Tet-island than that of the whole genome, supporting recombination rather than site-specific insertion as the means of transfer. There were considerable differences between the distribution of recombinations within in vitro-generated strains compared to that within the field strains. These differences are likely because in vitro-generated recombinants were selected for a tetracycline and rifamycin/rifampicin resistant background, leading to the largest peak of recombination across the Tet-island. Finally, we found that interclade recombinations across the Tet-island were more variable in length downstream of the Tet-island than upstream. CONCLUSIONS Our study supports the hypothesis that the occurrence of TetR strains in both clades of C. suis came about through interclade recombination after a single ancestral horizontal gene transfer event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Seth-Smith
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sankhya Bommana
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Health, Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Deborah Dean
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Health, Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California Berkeley, University of California San Francisco, Berkeley and San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Timothy D Read
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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2
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Marti H, Biggel M, Shima K, Onorini D, Rupp J, Charette SJ, Borel N. Chlamydia suis displays high transformation capacity with complete cloning vector integration into the chromosomal rrn-nqrF plasticity zone. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0237823. [PMID: 37882558 PMCID: PMC10715202 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02378-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE The obligate intracellular Chlamydia genus contains many pathogens with a negative impact on global health and economy. Despite recent progress, there is still a lack of genetic tools limiting our understanding of these complex bacteria. This study provides new insights into genetic manipulation of Chlamydia with the opportunistic porcine pathogen Chlamydia suis, the only chlamydial species naturally harboring an antibiotic resistance gene, originally obtained by horizontal gene transfer. C. suis is transmissible to humans, posing a potential public health concern. We report that C. suis can take up vectors that lack the native plasmid, a requirement for most chlamydial transformation systems described to date. Additionally, we show that C. trachomatis, the most common cause for bacterial sexually transmitted infections and infectious blindness worldwide, can be transformed with C. suis vectors. Finally, the chromosomal region that harbors the resistance gene of C. suis is highly susceptible to complete vector integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Biggel
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kensuke Shima
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Delia Onorini
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jan Rupp
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Steve J. Charette
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Bioinformatics, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Quebec City, Canada
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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3
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Kong FYS, Kenyon C, Unemo M. Important considerations regarding the widespread use of doxycycline chemoprophylaxis against sexually transmitted infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2023; 78:1561-1568. [PMID: 37129293 PMCID: PMC10577522 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkad129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) continue to rise across the world and interventions are essential to reduce their incidence. Past and recent studies have indicated this may be achieved using doxycycline post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) and this has sparked considerable interest in its use. However, many unanswered questions remain as to its long-term effects and particularly potentially negative impact on human microbiomes and antimicrobial resistance among STIs, other pathogens, and commensals. In this review, we discuss seven areas of concern pertaining to the widespread use of doxycycline PEP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Yuh Shiong Kong
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Chris Kenyon
- HIV/STI Unit, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
- Division of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Magnus Unemo
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Gonorrhoea and Other STIs, National Reference Laboratory for STIs, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
- Faculty of Population Health Sciences, Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK
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4
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Cheong HC, Sulaiman S, Looi CY, Chang LY, Wong WF. Chlamydia Infection Remodels Host Cell Mitochondria to Alter Energy Metabolism and Subvert Apoptosis. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1382. [PMID: 37374883 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11061382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia infection represents an important cause for concern for public health worldwide. Chlamydial infection of the genital tract in females is mostly asymptomatic at the early stage, often manifesting as mucopurulent cervicitis, urethritis, and salpingitis at the later stage; it has been associated with female infertility, spontaneous abortion, ectopic pregnancy, and cervical cancer. As an obligate intracellular bacterium, Chlamydia depends heavily on host cells for nutrient acquisition, energy production, and cell propagation. The current review discusses various strategies utilized by Chlamydia in manipulating the cell metabolism to benefit bacterial propagation and survival through close interaction with the host cell mitochondrial and apoptotic pathway molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Choon Cheong
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Sofiah Sulaiman
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Chung Yeng Looi
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Taylor's University, Subang Jaya 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Li-Yen Chang
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
| | - Won Fen Wong
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
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5
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Luu LDW, Kasimov V, Phillips S, Myers GSA, Jelocnik M. Genome organization and genomics in Chlamydia: whole genome sequencing increases understanding of chlamydial virulence, evolution, and phylogeny. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1178736. [PMID: 37287464 PMCID: PMC10242142 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1178736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The genus Chlamydia contains important obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens to humans and animals, including C. trachomatis and C. pneumoniae. Since 1998, when the first Chlamydia genome was published, our understanding of how these microbes interact, evolved and adapted to different intracellular host environments has been transformed due to the expansion of chlamydial genomes. This review explores the current state of knowledge in Chlamydia genomics and how whole genome sequencing has revolutionised our understanding of Chlamydia virulence, evolution, and phylogeny over the past two and a half decades. This review will also highlight developments in multi-omics and other approaches that have complemented whole genome sequencing to advance knowledge of Chlamydia pathogenesis and future directions for chlamydial genomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Don Wai Luu
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Vasilli Kasimov
- Centre for Bioinnovation, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
- School of Science, Technology and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
| | - Samuel Phillips
- Centre for Bioinnovation, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
| | - Garry S. A. Myers
- Australian Institute for Microbiology and Infection, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Martina Jelocnik
- Centre for Bioinnovation, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
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6
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Detection of Acquired Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Domestic Pig (Sus scrofa) and Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) Intestinal Samples by Metagenomics Analyses in Hungary. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11101441. [PMID: 36290099 PMCID: PMC9598914 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11101441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was metagenomics analyses of acquired antibiotic-resistance genes (ARGs) in the intestinal microbiome of two important food-animal species in Hungary from a One Health perspective. Intestinal content samples were collected from 12 domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) and from a common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Shotgun metagenomic sequencing of DNA purified from the intestinal samples was performed on the Illumina platform. The ResFinder database was applied for detecting acquired ARGs in the assembled metagenomic contigs. Altogether, 59 acquired ARG types were identified, 51 genes from domestic pig and 12 genes from the carp intestinal microbiome. ARG types belonged to the antibiotic classes aminoglycosides (27.1%), tetracyclines (25.4%), β-lactams (16.9%), and others. Of the identified ARGs, tet(E), a blaOXA-48-like β-lactamase gene, as well as cphA4, ampS, aadA2, qnrS2, and sul1, were identified only in carp but not in swine samples. Several of the detected acquired ARGs have not yet been described from food animals in Hungary. The tet(Q), tet(W), tet(O), and mef(A) genes detected in the intestinal microbiome of domestic pigs had also been identified from free-living wild boars in Hungary, suggesting a possible relationship between the occurrence of acquired ARGs in domestic and wild animal populations.
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Anstey SI, Jenkins C, Jelocnik M. Suspected chlamydial foetal loss highlights the need for standardised on-farm protocols. Aust Vet J 2022; 100:600-604. [PMID: 36071558 PMCID: PMC10087770 DOI: 10.1111/avj.13206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia psittaci is a recognised cause of late-term equine foetal loss and poses a zoonotic risk in Australia. However, a management strategy is lacking to protect at-risk humans handling infected aborted material and pregnant mares. This study proposes a protocol for approaching C. psittaci foetal loss after investigating four foetal losses that occurred on a horse stud in the Hunter Valley, Australia in 2021. Swabs from the foetal loss cases (n = 4), close contact mares (n = 59), and foals of the close contact mares (n = 33) were collected and tested for C. psittaci using both isothermal points of care and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) laboratory-based testing. Genotyping was performed utilising C. psittaci multilocus sequence typing and ompA sequencing from C. psittaci positive pooled foetal and placental (n = 3) DNA. Foetal and placental samples from the four foetal loss cases were all positive for C. psittaci with 100% agreement between the isothermal swab testing on the farm and qPCR DNA testing at an external laboratory. Genotyping revealed the clonal and identical sequence type 24 (ST24) C. psittaci strains in all samples. C. psittaci was not detected in close contact with mares or their foals. There was no statistically significant difference in foal survival between the close contact mare groups that did and did not receive antimicrobial intervention (P > 0.05). The proposed protocol is intended to raise awareness and begin a discussion for guidelines around handling of chlamydial foetal loss cases in late pregnant mares which pose a zoonotic threat to farm workers and veterinarians.
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Affiliation(s)
- S I Anstey
- Centre for Bioinnovation, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
| | - C Jenkins
- NSW Department of Primary Industries, Animal and Plant Health laboratories, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Menangle, New South Wales, Australia
| | - M Jelocnik
- Centre for Bioinnovation, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
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8
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Marti H, Suchland RJ, Rockey DD. The Impact of Lateral Gene Transfer in Chlamydia. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:861899. [PMID: 35321311 PMCID: PMC8936141 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.861899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Lateral gene transfer (LGT) facilitates many processes in bacterial ecology and pathogenesis, especially regarding pathogen evolution and the spread of antibiotic resistance across species. The obligate intracellular chlamydiae, which cause a range of diseases in humans and animals, were historically thought to be highly deficient in this process. However, research over the past few decades has demonstrated that this was not the case. The first reports of homologous recombination in the Chlamydiaceae family were published in the early 1990s. Later, the advent of whole-genome sequencing uncovered clear evidence for LGT in the evolution of the Chlamydiaceae, although the acquisition of tetracycline resistance in Chlamydia (C.) suis is the only recent instance of interphylum LGT. In contrast, genome and in vitro studies have shown that intraspecies DNA exchange occurs frequently and can even cross species barriers between closely related chlamydiae, such as between C. trachomatis, C. muridarum, and C. suis. Additionally, whole-genome analysis led to the identification of various DNA repair and recombination systems in C. trachomatis, but the exact machinery of DNA uptake and homologous recombination in the chlamydiae has yet to be fully elucidated. Here, we reviewed the current state of knowledge concerning LGT in Chlamydia by focusing on the effect of homologous recombination on the chlamydial genome, the recombination machinery, and its potential as a genetic tool for Chlamydia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Hanna Marti,
| | - Robert J. Suchland
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Daniel D. Rockey
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
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9
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Characteristics of Chlamydia suis Ocular Infection in Pigs. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10091103. [PMID: 34578134 PMCID: PMC8470092 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10091103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia (C.) suis can often be isolated from conjunctival swab specimens from pigs with conjunctivitis or keratoconjunctivitis. In the field, it is assumed to be a multifactorial disease triggered by immunosuppressing factors. This is the first experimental study to provoke clinical signs of conjunctivitis in pigs after C. suis primary mono-infection. Five six-week-old male piglets, free of ocular chlamydia shedding and seronegative for Chlamydia, were conjunctivally infected with the C. suis-type strain S45 (1 × 109 inclusion forming units), while four piglets served as negative controls. The infection group developed clinical signs of conjunctivitis with a peak in the first week post-infection. Immunohistochemical evaluation revealed the presence of Chlamydia not only in the conjunctival epithelium, but also in the enlarged lacrimal glands, lungs, and intestine. No circulating antibodies could be detected during the whole study period of three weeks, although three different test systems were applied as follows: the complement fixation test, MOMP-based Chlamydiaceae ELISA, and PmpC-based C. suis ELISA. Meanwhile, high numbers of IFN-γ-producing lymphocytes within PBMC were seen after C. suis re-stimulation 14 days post-infection. Hence, these data suggest that entry via the eye may not elicit immunological responses comparable to other routes of chlamydial infections.
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Ravichandran K, Anbazhagan S, Karthik K, Angappan M, Dhayananth B. A comprehensive review on avian chlamydiosis: a neglected zoonotic disease. Trop Anim Health Prod 2021; 53:414. [PMID: 34312716 PMCID: PMC8313243 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-021-02859-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Avian chlamydiosis is one of the important neglected diseases with critical zoonotic potential. Chlamydia psittaci, the causative agent, affects most categories of birds, livestock, companion animals, and humans. It has many obscured characters and epidemiological dimensions, which makes it unique among other bacterial agents. Recent reports on transmission from equine to humans alarmed the public health authorities, and it necessitates the importance of routine screening of this infectious disease. High prevalence of spill-over infection in equines was associated with reproductive losses. Newer avian chlamydial species are being reported in the recent years. It is a potential biological warfare agent and the disease is an occupational hazard mainly to custom officers handling exotic birds. Prevalence of the disease in wild birds, pet birds, and poultry causes economic losses to the poultry industry and the pet bird trade. Interestingly, there are speculations on the ‘legal’ and ‘illegal’ bird trade that may be the global source of some of the most virulent strains of this pathogen. The mortality rate generally ranges from 5 to 40% in untreated cases, but it can sometimes be higher in co-infection. The intracellular lifestyle of this pathogen makes the diagnosis more complicated and there is also lack of accurate diagnostics. Resistance to antibiotics is reported only in some pathogens of the Chlamydiaceae family, but routine screening may assess the actual situation in all pathogens. Due to the diverse nature of the pathogen, the organism necessitates the One Health partnerships to have complete understanding. The present review focuses on the zoonotic aspects of avian chlamydiosis with its new insights into the pathogenesis, transmission, treatment, prevention, and control strategies. The review also briefs on the basic understandings and complex epidemiology of avian chlamydiosis, highlighting the need for research on emerging one health perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karthikeyan Ravichandran
- Division of Public Health and Epidemiology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, India.
| | - Subbaiyan Anbazhagan
- Division of Bacteriology and Mycology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, India
| | - Kumaragurubaran Karthik
- Central University Laboratory, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai, India
| | - Madesh Angappan
- Division of Public Health and Epidemiology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, India
| | - Balusamy Dhayananth
- Division of Public Health and Epidemiology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, India
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De Puysseleyr L, De Puysseleyr K, Rybarczyk J, Vander Donck P, De Vos WH, Vanrompay D. Transferrins Reduce Replication of Chlamydia suis in McCoy Cells. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10070858. [PMID: 34358007 PMCID: PMC8308531 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10070858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia suis (C. suis) resides in the intestines of pigs and tetracycline-resistant strains are emerging worldwide. Intestinal infections are often subclinical. However, the gut is regarded as a C. suis reservoir and clinical infections have been associated with enteritis, conjunctivitis, pneumonia and reproductive failure. C. suis was found in boar semen and venereal transmission occurred. We studied the anti-Chlamydia suis activity of ovotransferrin (ovoTF) and bovine lactoferrin (bLF). Pre-incubation of C. suis with bLF or ovoTF had no significant effect on overall chlamydia replication (mean fluorescence area) in McCoy cells. The addition of ovoTF to the culture medium had no effect on bacterial replication, but the addition of 0.5 or 5 mg/mL of bLF significantly reduced the inclusion size by 17% and 15% respectively. Egg components are used for cryopreservation of boar semen. When inoculating an ovoTF-containing and Chlamydia suis-spiked semen sample in McCoy cells, a significant reduction in inclusion number (by 7%) and overall replication (by 11%) was observed. Thus, we showed that transferrins possess anti-chlamydial activity. Moreover, ovoTF addition to semen extenders might reduce C. suis venereal transmission. Further research is needed to unravel the mechanisms behind the observations and to enhance the effect of transferrins on C. suis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leentje De Puysseleyr
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (L.D.P.); (K.D.P.); (J.R.); (P.V.D.)
| | - Kristien De Puysseleyr
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (L.D.P.); (K.D.P.); (J.R.); (P.V.D.)
| | - Joanna Rybarczyk
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (L.D.P.); (K.D.P.); (J.R.); (P.V.D.)
| | - Paulien Vander Donck
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (L.D.P.); (K.D.P.); (J.R.); (P.V.D.)
| | - Winnok H. De Vos
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium;
| | - Daisy Vanrompay
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (L.D.P.); (K.D.P.); (J.R.); (P.V.D.)
- Correspondence:
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12
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Marti H, Bommana S, Read TD, Pesch T, Prähauser B, Dean D, Borel N. Generation of Tetracycline and Rifamycin Resistant Chlamydia Suis Recombinants. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:630293. [PMID: 34276577 PMCID: PMC8278220 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.630293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Chlamydiaceae are a family of obligate intracellular, gram-negative bacteria known to readily exchange DNA by homologous recombination upon co-culture in vitro, allowing the transfer of antibiotic resistance residing on the chlamydial chromosome. Among all the obligate intracellular bacteria, only Chlamydia (C.) suis naturally integrated a tetracycline resistance gene into its chromosome. Therefore, in order to further investigate the readiness of Chlamydia to exchange DNA and especially antibiotic resistance, C. suis is an excellent model to advance existing co-culture protocols allowing the identification of factors crucial to promote homologous recombination in vitro. With this strategy, we co-cultured tetracycline-resistant with rifamycin group-resistant C. suis, which resulted in an allover recombination efficiency of 28%. We found that simultaneous selection is crucial to increase the number of recombinants, that sub-inhibitory concentrations of tetracycline inhibit rather than promote the selection of double-resistant recombinants, and identified a recombination-deficient C. suis field isolate, strain SWA-110 (1-28b). While tetracycline resistance was detected in field isolates, rifampicin/rifamycin resistance (RifR) had to be induced in vitro. Here, we describe the protocol with which RifR C. suis strains were generated and confirmed. Subsequent whole-genome sequencing then revealed that G530E and D461A mutations in rpoB, a gene encoding for the β-subunit of the bacterial RNA polymerase (RNAP), was likely responsible for rifampicin and rifamycin resistance, respectively. Finally, whole-genome sequencing of recombinants obtained by co-culture revealed that recombinants picked from the same plate may be sibling clones and confirmed C. suis genome plasticity by revealing variable, apparently non-specific areas of recombination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sankhya Bommana
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Timothy D Read
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Theresa Pesch
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Barbara Prähauser
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Deborah Dean
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA, United States.,Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.,Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Nicole Borel
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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13
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Käser T. Swine as biomedical animal model for T-cell research-Success and potential for transmittable and non-transmittable human diseases. Mol Immunol 2021; 135:95-115. [PMID: 33873098 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2021.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Swine is biologically one of the most relevant large animal models for biomedical research. With its use as food animal that can be exploited as a free cell and tissue source for research and its high susceptibility to human diseases, swine additionally represent an excellent option for both the 3R principle and One Health research. One of the previously most limiting factors of the pig model was its arguably limited immunological toolbox. Yet, in the last decade, this toolbox has vastly improved including the ability to study porcine T-cells. This review summarizes the swine model for biomedical research with focus on T cells. It first contrasts the swine model to the more commonly used mouse and non-human primate model before describing the current capabilities to characterize and extend our knowledge on porcine T cells. Thereafter, it not only reflects on previous biomedical T-cell research but also extends into areas in which more in-depth T-cell analyses could strongly benefit biomedical research. While the former should inform on the successes of biomedical T-cell research in swine, the latter shall inspire swine T-cell researchers to find collaborations with researchers working in other areas - such as nutrition, allergy, cancer, transplantation, infectious diseases, or vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Käser
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, 1060 William Moore Drive, 27607 Raleigh, NC, USA.
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14
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Rohner L, Marti H, Torgerson P, Hoffmann K, Jelocnik M, Borel N. Prevalence and molecular characterization of C. pecorum detected in Swiss fattening pigs. Vet Microbiol 2021; 256:109062. [PMID: 33848714 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2021.109062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia (C.) pecorum, an obligate intracellular bacterial species commonly found in ruminants, can also occur in pigs. However, its significance as a potential porcine pathogen, or commensal, is still unclear. In a previous study (Hoffmann et al. 2015), mixed infections of C. suis and C. pecorum were detected in 14 Swiss fattening pig farms. Using these samples, we aimed to investigate the infection dynamics of C. suis and C. pecorum mixed infections in these farms. In addition, we analyzed the genetic diversity of Swiss porcine C. pecorum strains in relation to globally circulating strains. In total, 1284 conjunctival and rectal swabs from 391 pigs, collected at the beginning and end of the fattening period, were tested during the course of this study. We determined the bacterial loads of C. suis and C. pecorum using species-specific real-time PCR (qPCR) and compared these results to already existing DNA-microarray and Chlamydiaceae qPCR data. Overall, C. suis and Chlamydiaceae copy numbers decreased in the course of the fattening period, whereas C. pecorum copy numbers increased. No association was found between clinical signs (conjunctivitis, lameness and diarrhea) and the bacterial loads. Preventive antibiotic treatment at the beginning of the fattening period significantly lowered the chlamydial load and outdoor access was associated with higher loads. Proximity to the nearest ruminants correlated with increased C. pecorum loads, indicating that C. pecorum could be transmitted from ruminants to pigs. Multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) and major outer membrane protein (ompA) genotyping revealed two novel sequence types (STs) (301, 302) and seven unique ompA genotypes (1-7) that appear to form a specific clade separate from other European C. pecorum strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea Rohner
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse-Faculty University Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland; Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland
| | - Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse-Faculty University Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland; Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland.
| | - Paul Torgerson
- Section of Veterinary Epidemiology, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland
| | - Karolin Hoffmann
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse-Faculty University Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland; Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland
| | - Martina Jelocnik
- Genecology Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, 4556, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse-Faculty University Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland; Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland
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15
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Dimond ZE, Hefty PS. Comprehensive genome analysis and comparisons of the swine pathogen, Chlamydia suis reveals unique ORFs and candidate host-specificity factors. Pathog Dis 2020; 79:5868767. [PMID: 32639528 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftaa035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia suis, a ubiquitous swine pathogen, has the potential for zoonotic transmission to humans and often encodes for resistance to the primary treatment antibiotic, tetracycline. Because of this emerging threat, comparative genomics for swine isolate R19 with inter- and intra-species genomes was performed. A 1.094 Mb genome was determined through de novo assembly of Illumina high throughput sequencing reads. Annotation and subsystem analyses were conducted, revealing 986 putative genes (Chls_###) that are predominantly orthologs to other known Chlamydia genes. Subsequent comparative genomics revealed a high level of genomic synteny and overall sequence identity with other Chlamydia while 92 unique C. suis open reading frames were annotated. Direct comparison of Chlamydia-specific gene families that included the plasticity zone, inclusion membrane proteins, polymorphic membrane proteins and the major outer membrane protein, demonstrated high gene content identity with C. trachomatis and C. muridarum. These comparisons also identified diverse components that potentially could contribute to host-specificity. This study constitutes the first genome-wide comparative analysis for C. suis, generating a fully annotated reference genome. These studies will enable focused efforts on factors that provide key species specificity and adaptation to cognate hosts that are attributed to chlamydial infections, including humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe E Dimond
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside Ave. Lawrence KS 66044
| | - P Scott Hefty
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside Ave. Lawrence KS 66044
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16
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Isolation of Tetracycline-Resistant Chlamydia suis from a Pig Herd Affected by Reproductive Disorders and Conjunctivitis. Antibiotics (Basel) 2020; 9:antibiotics9040187. [PMID: 32316412 PMCID: PMC7235844 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics9040187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to various challenges in diagnosing chlamydiosis in pigs, antibiotic treatment is usually performed before any molecular or antibiotic susceptibility testing. This could increase the occurrence of tetracycline-resistant Chlamydia (C.) suis isolates in the affected pig population and potentiate the reoccurrence of clinical signs. Here, we present a case of an Austrian pig farm, where tetracycline resistant and sensitive C. suis isolates were isolated from four finishers with conjunctivitis. On herd-level, 10% of the finishers suffered from severe conjunctivitis and sows showed a high percentage of irregular return to estrus. Subsequent treatment of whole-herd using oxytetracycline led to a significant reduction of clinical signs. Retrospective antibiotic susceptibility testing revealed tetracycline resistance and decreased susceptibility to doxycycline in half of the ocular C. suis isolates, and all isolates were able to partially recover following a single-dose tetracycline treatment in vitro. These findings were later confirmed in vivo, when all former clinical signs recurred three months later. This case report raises awareness of tetracycline resistance in C. suis and emphasizes the importance of preventative selection of tetracycline resistant C. suis isolates.
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17
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PREVALENCE OF CHLAMYDIACEAE AND TETRACYCLINE RESISTANCE GENES IN WILD BOARS OF CENTRAL EUROPE. J Wildl Dis 2020; 56:512-522. [PMID: 32216676 DOI: 10.7589/2019-11-275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Our aim was to investigate the occurrence and distribution of Chlamydia suis and other Chlamydiaceae in the wild boar (Sus scrofa) population of Switzerland and Northern Italy and the detection of tetracycline resistance genes by PCR. We collected a total of 471 conjunctival swabs (n=292), rectal swabs (n=147), and lung tissue samples (n=32) belonging to 292 wild boars. The prevalence of Chlamydiaceae in the investigated wild boar populations was very low (1.4%, 4/292). We found C. suis in rectal or conjunctival swabs but not in lung samples. The low chlamydial prevalence might be attributed to limited contacts between wild boars and outdoor domestic pigs due to strict biosecurity measures or limited numbers of rural pig herds. The tetA(C) gene fragment was detected in six samples, which were all negative for Chlamydiaceae, and was probably not of chlamydial origin but more likely from other bacteria. The low tetracycline resistance rate in wild boar might be explained by the lack of selective pressure. However, transmission of resistance genes from domestic pigs to wild boar or selective pressure in the environment could lead to the development and spread of tetracycline-resistant C. suis strains in wild boars.
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Abstract
Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens of humans. Infections in animals are also widespread with some species, such as Chlamydia psittaci, long recognised as a serious threat to human health. Critical to the public health response of any zoonotic disease outbreaks is reliable and up-to-date information on the epidemiology of the target pathogen. Aided by advances in the use of quantitative PCR, molecular typing and culture-independent genomic studies, significant recent work has highlighted an expanded diversity and host range of chlamydial pathogens in animals. New and unexpected cases of chlamydial zoonoses have now been recently documented in Australia and elsewhere, emphasising the importance of multi-disciplinary ‘One Health' collaboration and the use of standardised methods to detect and characterise chlamydial pathogens in humans and animals.
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19
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Sigalova OM, Chaplin AV, Bochkareva OO, Shelyakin PV, Filaretov VA, Akkuratov EE, Burskaia V, Gelfand MS. Chlamydia pan-genomic analysis reveals balance between host adaptation and selective pressure to genome reduction. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:710. [PMID: 31510914 PMCID: PMC6740158 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-6059-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chlamydia are ancient intracellular pathogens with reduced, though strikingly conserved genome. Despite their parasitic lifestyle and isolated intracellular environment, these bacteria managed to avoid accumulation of deleterious mutations leading to subsequent genome degradation characteristic for many parasitic bacteria. RESULTS We report pan-genomic analysis of sixteen species from genus Chlamydia including identification and functional annotation of orthologous genes, and characterization of gene gains, losses, and rearrangements. We demonstrate the overall genome stability of these bacteria as indicated by a large fraction of common genes with conserved genomic locations. On the other hand, extreme evolvability is confined to several paralogous gene families such as polymorphic membrane proteins and phospholipase D, and likely is caused by the pressure from the host immune system. CONCLUSIONS This combination of a large, conserved core genome and a small, evolvable periphery likely reflect the balance between the selective pressure towards genome reduction and the need to adapt to escape from the host immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga M. Sigalova
- Kharkevich Institute for Information Transmission Problems, RAS, Moscow, Russia
- current address: European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Andrei V. Chaplin
- Microbiology and Virology Department, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga O. Bochkareva
- Kharkevich Institute for Information Transmission Problems, RAS, Moscow, Russia
- current address: Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Pavel V. Shelyakin
- Kharkevich Institute for Information Transmission Problems, RAS, Moscow, Russia
- Center for Life Sciences, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, RAS, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Evgeny E. Akkuratov
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia
- current address: Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Applied Physics, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Valentina Burskaia
- Center for Life Sciences, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia
| | - Mikhail S. Gelfand
- Kharkevich Institute for Information Transmission Problems, RAS, Moscow, Russia
- Center for Life Sciences, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russia
- Faculty of Computer Science, Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
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20
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Onorini D, Donati M, Marti H, Biondi R, Levi A, Nufer L, Prähauser B, Rigamonti S, Vicari N, Borel N. The influence of centrifugation and incubation temperatures on various veterinary and human chlamydial species. Vet Microbiol 2019; 233:11-20. [PMID: 31176395 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The Chlamydiaceae are Gram-negative bacteria causing diseases in humans and in both, endothermic (mammals and birds) and poikilothermic (e.g. reptiles, amphibians) animals. As most chlamydial species described today were isolated from humans and endothermic animals, the commonly used culturing temperature in vitro is 37 °C, although the centrifugation temperature during experimental infection, a technique necessary to improve the infection rate, may vary from 25 to 37 °C. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of different centrifugation (28° or 33 °C) and incubation temperatures (28 °C or 37 °C) on the average inclusion size, infectivity and ultrastructural morphology of human and animal chlamydial strains, as well as two recently described species originating from snakes, C. poikilothermis and C. serpentis, in LLC-MK2 cells at 48 h post infection. Infectivity and average inclusion size was reduced at an incubation temperature of 28 °C compared to 37 °C for all strains including C. poikilothermis, although the latter formed larger, fully matured inclusions at 28 °C in comparison to the other investigated Chlamydia species. C.psittaci displayed a shorter developmental cycle than the other species confirming previous studies. Higher centrifugation temperature increased the subsequent inclusion size of C. trachomatis, C. abortus and C. suis but not their infectivity, while the incubation temperature had no discernable effect on the morphology, inclusion size and infectivity of the other chlamydial strains. In conclusion, we found that all Chlamydia species are viable and can grow at low incubation temperatures, although all strains grew better and more rapidly at 37 °C compared to 28 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delia Onorini
- DIMES, Microbiology, Policlinico S. Orsola, University of Bologna, Italy; Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Manuela Donati
- DIMES, Microbiology, Policlinico S. Orsola, University of Bologna, Italy
| | - Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roberta Biondi
- DIMES, Microbiology, Policlinico S. Orsola, University of Bologna, Italy
| | - Aurora Levi
- DIMES, Microbiology, Policlinico S. Orsola, University of Bologna, Italy
| | - Lisbeth Nufer
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Barbara Prähauser
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sara Rigamonti
- National Reference Laboratory for Animal Chlamydioses, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Pavia, Italy
| | - Nadia Vicari
- National Reference Laboratory for Animal Chlamydioses, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Pavia, Italy
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland.
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21
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Bommana S, Polkinghorne A. Mini Review: Antimicrobial Control of Chlamydial Infections in Animals: Current Practices and Issues. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:113. [PMID: 30778341 PMCID: PMC6369208 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia are a genus of successful obligate intracellular pathogens spread across humans, wildlife, and domesticated animals. The most common species reported in livestock in this genus are Chlamydia abortus, Chlamydia psittaci, Chlamydia suis, and Chlamydia pecorum. Chlamydial infections trigger a series of inflammatory disease-related sequelae including arthritis, conjunctivitis, pneumonia, and abortion. Other bacteria in the phylum Chlamydiae have also been reported in livestock and wildlife but their impact on animal health is less clear. Control of chlamydial infections relies on the use of macrolides, fluoroquinolones, and tetracyclines. Tetracycline resistance (TETR) reported for porcine C. suis strains in association with the use of tetracycline feed is a potentially significant concern given experimental evidence highlighting that the genetic elements inferring TETR may be horizontally transferred to other chlamydial species. As documented in human Chlamydia trachomatis infections, relapse of infections, bacterial shedding post-antibiotic treatment, and disease progression despite chlamydial clearance in animals have also been reported. The identification of novel chlamydiae as well as new animal hosts for previously described chlamydial pathogens should place a renewed emphasis on basic in vivo studies to demonstrate the efficacy of existing and new antimicrobial treatment regimes. Building on recent reviews of antimicrobials limited to C. trachomatis and C. suis, this review will explore the use of antimicrobials, the evidence and factors that influence the treatment failure of chlamydial infections in animals and the future directions in the control of these important veterinary pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sankhya Bommana
- The Animal Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
| | - Adam Polkinghorne
- The Animal Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
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22
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Panzetta ME, Valdivia RH, Saka HA. Chlamydia Persistence: A Survival Strategy to Evade Antimicrobial Effects in-vitro and in-vivo. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:3101. [PMID: 30619180 PMCID: PMC6299033 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Chlamydiaceae comprise a group of highly adapted bacterial pathogens sharing a unique intracellular lifestyle. Three Chlamydia species are pathogenic to humans: Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydia pneumoniae, and Chlamydia psittaci. C. trachomatis is the leading bacterial cause of sexually-transmitted infections and infectious blindness worldwide. Chlamydia pneumoniae is a major cause of community-acquired atypical pneumonia. C. psittaci primarily affects psittacine birds and can be transmitted to humans causing psittacosis, a potentially fatal form of pneumonia. As opposed to other bacterial pathogens, the spread of clinically relevant antimicrobial resistance genes does not seem to be a major problem for the treatment of Chlamydia infections. However, when exposed to stressing conditions, like those arising from exposure to antimicrobial stimuli, these bacteria undergo a temporary interruption in their replication cycle and enter a viable but non-cultivable state known as persistence. When the stressing conditions are removed, Chlamydia resumes replication and generation of infectious particles. This review gives an overview of the different survival strategies used by Chlamydia to evade the deleterious effects of penicillin and IFNγ, with a focus on the different models used to study Chlamydia persistence, their contribution to elucidating the molecular basis of this complex phenomenon and their potential implications for studies in animal models of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Emilia Panzetta
- CIBICI-CONICET, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Raphael H. Valdivia
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Hector Alex Saka
- CIBICI-CONICET, Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
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Marti H, Borel N, Dean D, Leonard CA. Evaluating the Antibiotic Susceptibility of Chlamydia - New Approaches for in Vitro Assays. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1414. [PMID: 30018602 PMCID: PMC6037721 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pigs are the natural hosts of Chlamydia suis, the only Chlamydia species known to spontaneously acquire homotypic resistance conferred by a class C tetracycline resistance gene. Various susceptibility assays have existed for several years, but there is no widely accepted, standardized assay to determine chlamydial antibiotic susceptibility. In this study, we developed new approaches to determine the in vitro susceptibility of Chlamydia to different antibiotics in view of existing protocols. Specifically, the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) is based on a consensus of both inclusion number reduction and alteration of inclusion size and morphology upon antibiotic exposure. In addition to these, we employed a recovery assay, allowing observation of the chlamydial response to drug removal and subsequent recovery, as compared to both continued exposure and to the unexposed control. We propose a simple and fast screening method to detect tetracycline resistant C. suis strains within 2 to 3 days with minimal use of consumables. For proof of principle, we evaluated the susceptibility of three C. suis field strains and the reference strain S45/6 to tetracycline, sulfamethoxazole, and penicillin, antibiotics commonly used to prevent respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases on fattening pig farms. We found that tetracycline sensitive strains can easily be distinguished from resistant strains using the evaluation parameters proposed in this study. Moreover, we report that S45/6 is sensitive to sulfamethoxazole while all evaluated C. suis field strains showed some degree of sulfamethoxazole resistance. Finally, we confirm that Penicillin G induces the chlamydial stress response in all evaluated C. suis strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development, UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland, CA, United States
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Deborah Dean
- Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development, UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland, CA, United States.,Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.,Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States.,School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Cory A Leonard
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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24
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Borel N, Polkinghorne A, Pospischil A. A Review on Chlamydial Diseases in Animals: Still a Challenge for Pathologists? Vet Pathol 2018; 55:374-390. [PMID: 29310550 DOI: 10.1177/0300985817751218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydiae have a worldwide distribution causing a wide range of diseases in human hosts, livestock, and companion animals as well as in wildlife and exotic species. Moreover, they can persist in their hosts as asymptomatic infections for extended periods of time. The introduction of molecular techniques has revolutionized the Chlamydia field by expanding the host range of known chlamydial species but also by discovering new species and even new families of bacteria in the broader order Chlamydiales. The wide range of hosts, diseases, and tissues affected by chlamydiae complicate the diagnosis such that standard diagnostic approaches for these bacteria are rare. Bacteria of the Chlamydiales order are small and their inclusions are difficult to detect by standard microscopy. With the exception of avian and ovine chlamydiosis, macroscopic and/or histologic changes might not be pathognomic or indicative for a chlamydial infection or even not present at all. Moreover, detection of chlamydial DNA in specimens in the absence of other methods or related pathological lesions questions the significance of such findings. The pathogenic potential of the majority of recently identified Chlamydia-related bacteria remains largely unknown and awaits investigation through experimental or natural infection models including histomorphological characterization of associated lesions. This review aims to summarize the historical background and the most important developments in the field of animal chlamydial research in the past 5 years with a special focus on pathology. It will summarize the current nomenclature, present critical thoughts about diagnostics, and give an update on chlamydial infections in domesticated animals such as livestock, companion animals and birds, as well as free-ranging and captive wild animals such as reptiles, fish, and marsupials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Borel
- 1 Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Adam Polkinghorne
- 2 Centre for Animal Health Innovation, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Australia
| | - Andreas Pospischil
- 1 Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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25
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De Puysseleyr K, Kieckens E, De Puysseleyr L, Van den Wyngaert H, Ahmed B, Van Lent S, Creasy HH, Myers GSA, Vanrompay D. Development of a Chlamydia suis-specific antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on the use of a B-cell epitope of the polymorphic membrane protein C. Transbound Emerg Dis 2018; 65:e457-e469. [PMID: 29314736 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia suis infections lead to economic loss in the pork industry. Chlamydia suis infections could be successfully treated with tetracyclines until the appearance of a tetracycline resistant phenotype, which was acquired via horizontal gene transfer of the tet(C) gene. Given the importance of C. suis as a swine pathogen and as a recently emerged tetracycline resistant pathogen with zoonotic potential, our aim was to develop a sensitive C. suis-specific antibody ELISA based on the polymorphic membrane proteins (Pmps). Chlamydia Pmps are important virulence factors and candidate antigens for serodiagnosis. We identified nine Pmps (PmpA to I) in C. suis strain MD56 using a recently developed Hidden-Markov model. PmpC was the most promising candidate for the development of a C. suis-specific antibody ELISA as the protein was absent in C. abortus, C. pecorum and C. psittaci which also infect pigs and as the protein contained C. suis-specific amino acid regions, absent in C. trachomatis PmpC. We identified an immunodominant B-cell epitope in C. suis PmpC using experimental porcine sera. The sensitivity and specificity of the PmpC ELISA was compared to the complement fixation test (CFT) and to a recombinant MOMP ELISA using experimental sera. The PmpC ELISA detected all positive control sera and was in contrast to CFT and the rMOMP ELISA 100% C. suis specific as positive control sera against other Chlamydia species did not react in the PmpC ELISA. The test was successfully validated using slaughterhouse sera and sera from clinically affected pigs. The PmpC ELISA could assist in diminishing the spread of C. suis infections in the pork industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- K De Puysseleyr
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - E Kieckens
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - L De Puysseleyr
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - H Van den Wyngaert
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - B Ahmed
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - S Van Lent
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - H H Creasy
- Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - G S A Myers
- i3 Institute, University of Technology, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - D Vanrompay
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
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26
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Li M, Jelocnik M, Yang F, Gong J, Kaltenboeck B, Polkinghorne A, Feng Z, Pannekoek Y, Borel N, Song C, Jiang P, Li J, Zhang J, Wang Y, Wang J, Zhou X, Wang C. Asymptomatic infections with highly polymorphic Chlamydia suis are ubiquitous in pigs. BMC Vet Res 2017; 13:370. [PMID: 29191191 PMCID: PMC5710075 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-017-1295-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Chlamydia suis is an important, globally distributed, highly prevalent and diverse obligate intracellular pathogen infecting pigs. To investigate the prevalence and genetic diversity of C. suis in China, 2,137 nasal, conjunctival, and rectal swabs as well as whole blood and lung samples of pigs were collected in 19 regions from ten provinces of China in this study. Results We report an overall positivity of 62.4% (1,334/2,137) of C. suis following screening by Chlamydia spp. 23S rRNA-based FRET-PCR and high-resolution melting curve analysis and confirmatory sequencing. For C. suis-positive samples, 33.3 % of whole blood and 62.5% of rectal swabs were found to be positive for the C. suis tetR(C) gene, while 13.3% of whole blood and 87.0% of rectal swabs were positive for the C. suis tet(C) gene. Phylogenetic comparison of partial C. suis ompA gene sequences revealed significant genetic diversity in the C. suis strains. This genetic diversity was confirmed by C. suis-specific multilocus sequence typing (MLST), which identified 26 novel sequence types among 27 examined strains. Tanglegrams based on MLST and ompA sequences provided evidence of C. suis recombination amongst the strains analyzed. Conclusions Genetically highly diverse C. suis strains are exceedingly prevalent in pigs. As it stands, the potential pathogenic effect of C. suis on pig health and production of C. suis remains unclear and will be the subject of further investigations. Further study is also required to address the transmission of C. suis between pigs and the risk of 'spill-over' and 'spill-back' of infections to wild animals and humans. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12917-017-1295-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Li
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Martina Jelocnik
- Centre for Animal Health Innovation, Faculty of Science, Health, Education & Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, QLD, Maroochydore, Australia
| | - Feng Yang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianseng Gong
- Poultry Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | | | - Adam Polkinghorne
- Centre for Animal Health Innovation, Faculty of Science, Health, Education & Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, QLD, Maroochydore, Australia
| | - Zhixin Feng
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-Products, Nanjing, China
| | - Yvonne Pannekoek
- Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Chunlian Song
- Yunnan Agricultural University College of Animal Science & Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Ping Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Diseases Diagnostic and Immunology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jing Li
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jilei Zhang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yaoyao Wang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiawei Wang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Zhou
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengming Wang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China. .,College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA.
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