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Han S, Dias GB, Basting PJ, Nelson MG, Patel S, Marzo M, Bergman CM. Ongoing transposition in cell culture reveals the phylogeny of diverse Drosophila S2 sublines. Genetics 2022; 221:iyac077. [PMID: 35536183 PMCID: PMC9252272 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyac077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cultured cells are widely used in molecular biology despite poor understanding of how cell line genomes change in vitro over time. Previous work has shown that Drosophila cultured cells have a higher transposable element content than whole flies, but whether this increase in transposable element content resulted from an initial burst of transposition during cell line establishment or ongoing transposition in cell culture remains unclear. Here, we sequenced the genomes of 25 sublines of Drosophila S2 cells and show that transposable element insertions provide abundant markers for the phylogenetic reconstruction of diverse sublines in a model animal cell culture system. DNA copy number evolution across S2 sublines revealed dramatically different patterns of genome organization that support the overall evolutionary history reconstructed using transposable element insertions. Analysis of transposable element insertion site occupancy and ancestral states support a model of ongoing transposition dominated by episodic activity of a small number of retrotransposon families. Our work demonstrates that substantial genome evolution occurs during long-term Drosophila cell culture, which may impact the reproducibility of experiments that do not control for subline identity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunhua Han
- Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Guilherme B Dias
- Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
- Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Preston J Basting
- Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Michael G Nelson
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Sanjai Patel
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Mar Marzo
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Casey M Bergman
- Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
- Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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2
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Petersen M, Winter S, Coimbra R, J de Jong M, Kapitonov VV, Nilsson MA. Population analysis of retrotransposons in giraffe genomes supports RTE decline and widespread LINE1 activity in Giraffidae. Mob DNA 2021; 12:27. [PMID: 34836553 PMCID: PMC8620236 DOI: 10.1186/s13100-021-00254-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The majority of structural variation in genomes is caused by insertions of transposable elements (TEs). In mammalian genomes, the main TE fraction is made up of autonomous and non-autonomous non-LTR retrotransposons commonly known as LINEs and SINEs (Long and Short Interspersed Nuclear Elements). Here we present one of the first population-level analysis of TE insertions in a non-model organism, the giraffe. Giraffes are ruminant artiodactyls, one of the few mammalian groups with genomes that are colonized by putatively active LINEs of two different clades of non-LTR retrotransposons, namely the LINE1 and RTE/BovB LINEs as well as their associated SINEs. We analyzed TE insertions of both types, and their associated SINEs in three giraffe genome assemblies, as well as across a population level sampling of 48 individuals covering all extant giraffe species. RESULTS The comparative genome screen identified 139,525 recent LINE1 and RTE insertions in the sampled giraffe population. The analysis revealed a drastically reduced RTE activity in giraffes, whereas LINE1 is still actively propagating in the genomes of extant (sub)-species. In concert with the extremely low activity of the giraffe RTE, we also found that RTE-dependent SINEs, namely Bov-tA and Bov-A2, have been virtually immobile in the last 2 million years. Despite the high current activity of the giraffe LINE1, we did not find evidence for the presence of currently active LINE1-dependent SINEs. TE insertion heterozygosity rates differ among the different (sub)-species, likely due to divergent population histories. CONCLUSIONS The horizontally transferred RTE/BovB and its derived SINEs appear to be close to inactivation and subsequent extinction in the genomes of extant giraffe species. This is the first time that the decline of a TE family has been meticulously analyzed from a population genetics perspective. Our study shows how detailed information about past and present TE activity can be obtained by analyzing large-scale population-level genomic data sets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malte Petersen
- Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Stübeweg 51, 79108, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sven Winter
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Raphael Coimbra
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Institute for Ecology, Evolution and Diversity, Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Straße 13, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Menno J de Jong
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Vladimir V Kapitonov
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics (LOEWE-TBG), Senckenberganlage 25, 60325, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Maria A Nilsson
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
- LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics (LOEWE-TBG), Senckenberganlage 25, 60325, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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3
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Ma Y, Wang M, Wei F, Nie Y. Geographic distributions shape the functional traits in a large mammalian family. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:13175-13185. [PMID: 34646461 PMCID: PMC8495830 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Traits of organisms are shaped by their living environments and also determined in part by their phylogenetic relationships. For example, phylogenetic relationships often affect the geographic distributions of animals and cause variation in their living environments, which usually play key roles in the life history and determine the functional traits of species. As an ancient family of mammals, bears widely distribute and have evolved some specific strategies for survival and reproduction during their long-term evolutionary histories. Many studies on the ecology of bears have been conducted in recent decades, but few have focused on the relationships between their geographic distributions and ecological adaptations. Here, using bears as a model system, we collected and reanalyzed data from the available literatures to explore how geographic distributions and phylogenetic relationships shape the functional traits of animals. We found a positive relationship between phylogenetic relatedness and geographic distributions, with bears distributed in adjacent areas applying more similar strategies to survive and reproduce: (a) Bears living at high latitudes consumed a higher proportion of vertebrates, which may provide more fat for adaptation to low temperatures, and (b) their reproduction rhythms follow fluctuations in seasonal forage availability and quality, in which bears reach mating status from March to May and give birth in approximately November or later.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingjie Ma
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation BiologyInstitute of ZoologyChinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
- University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Meng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation BiologyInstitute of ZoologyChinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
- University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Fuwen Wei
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation BiologyInstitute of ZoologyChinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
- University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
- Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and GeneticsChinese Academy of SciencesKunmingChina
| | - Yonggang Nie
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation BiologyInstitute of ZoologyChinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
- University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
- Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and GeneticsChinese Academy of SciencesKunmingChina
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4
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Jiangzuo Q, Flynn JJ. The Earliest Ursine Bear Demonstrates the Origin of Plant-Dominated Omnivory in Carnivora. iScience 2020; 23:101235. [PMID: 32559731 PMCID: PMC7303987 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Revised: 04/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In Carnivora, increases in body size often lead to dietary specialization toward hypercarnivory. Ursine bears (Tremarctos and Ursus), however, are the only omnivorous Carnivora that evolved large body sizes (i.e., >50 kg). Traits contributing to their gigantism, and how those traits evolved, have never been studied. Here we propose that special dental characters of Ursinae (parallel buccal and lingual ridges) permit a sagittally oriented mastication associated with increasing emphasis on plant foods. This pattern can be traced back to a new early diverging bear of plant-dominated omnivorous diet, Aurorarctos tirawa gen. et sp. nov. from the late Middle Miocene of North America, which was supported as the earliest known ursine bear by phylogenetic analysis. The anatomical transition to increased masticatory efficiency, probably together with the ability to hibernate, helped bears break prior ecological limitations on body size and led to the evolution of a distinctive lineage of herbivorous-omnivorous, large-bodied Carnivora.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qigao Jiangzuo
- Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100044, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Beijing 100044, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York 10024, USA.
| | - John J Flynn
- Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York 10024, USA
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Parker E, Dornburg A, Domínguez-Domínguez O, Piller KR. Assessing phylogenetic information to reveal uncertainty in historical data: An example using Goodeinae (Teleostei: Cyprinodontiformes: Goodeidae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2019; 134:282-290. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2019.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Pischedda E, Scolari F, Valerio F, Carballar-Lejarazú R, Catapano PL, Waterhouse RM, Bonizzoni M. Insights Into an Unexplored Component of the Mosquito Repeatome: Distribution and Variability of Viral Sequences Integrated Into the Genome of the Arboviral Vector Aedes albopictus. Front Genet 2019; 10:93. [PMID: 30809249 PMCID: PMC6379468 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2019.00093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus is an invasive mosquito and a competent vector for public-health relevant arboviruses such as Chikungunya (Alphavirus), Dengue and Zika (Flavivirus) viruses. Unexpectedly, the sequencing of the genome of this mosquito revealed an unusually high number of integrated sequences with similarities to non-retroviral RNA viruses of the Flavivirus and Rhabdovirus genera. These Non-retroviral Integrated RNA Virus Sequences (NIRVS) are enriched in piRNA clusters and coding sequences and have been proposed to constitute novel mosquito immune factors. However, given the abundance of NIRVS and their variable viral origin, their relative biological roles remain unexplored. Here we used an analytical approach that intersects computational, evolutionary and molecular methods to study the genomic landscape of mosquito NIRVS. We demonstrate that NIRVS are differentially distributed across mosquito genomes, with a core set of seemingly the oldest integrations with similarity to Rhabdoviruses. Additionally, we compare the polymorphisms of NIRVS with respect to that of fast and slow-evolving genes within the Ae. albopictus genome. Overall, NIRVS appear to be less polymorphic than slow-evolving genes, with differences depending on whether they occur in intergenic regions or in piRNA clusters. Finally, two NIRVS that map within the coding sequences of genes annotated as Rhabdovirus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and the nucleocapsid-encoding gene, respectively, are highly polymorphic and are expressed, suggesting exaptation possibly to enhance the mosquito's antiviral responses. These results greatly advance our understanding of the complexity of the mosquito repeatome and the biology of viral integrations in mosquito genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Pischedda
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Francesca Scolari
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Federica Valerio
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Rebeca Carballar-Lejarazú
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | | | - Robert M. Waterhouse
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne and Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Lammers F, Blumer M, Rücklé C, Nilsson MA. Retrophylogenomics in rorquals indicate large ancestral population sizes and a rapid radiation. Mob DNA 2019; 10:5. [PMID: 30679961 PMCID: PMC6340175 DOI: 10.1186/s13100-018-0143-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Baleen whales (Mysticeti) are the largest animals on earth and their evolutionary history has been studied in detail, but some relationships still remain contentious. In particular, reconstructing the phylogenetic position of the gray whales (Eschrichtiidae) has been complicated by evolutionary processes such as gene flow and incomplete lineage sorting (ILS). Here, whole-genome sequencing data of the extant baleen whale radiation allowed us to identify transposable element (TE) insertions in order to perform phylogenomic analyses and measure germline insertion rates of TEs. Baleen whales exhibit the slowest nucleotide substitution rate among mammals, hence we additionally examined the evolutionary insertion rates of TE insertions across the genomes. Results In eleven whole-genome sequences representing the extant radiation of baleen whales, we identified 91,859 CHR-SINE insertions that were used to reconstruct the phylogeny with different approaches as well as perform evolutionary network analyses and a quantification of conflicting phylogenetic signals. Our results indicate that the radiation of rorquals and gray whales might not be bifurcating. The morphologically derived gray whales are placed inside the rorqual group, as the sister-species to humpback and fin whales. Detailed investigation of TE insertion rates confirm that a mutational slow down in the whale lineage is present but less pronounced for TEs than for nucleotide substitutions. Conclusions Whole genome sequencing based detection of TE insertions showed that the speciation processes in baleen whales represent a rapid radiation. Large genome-scale TE data sets in addition allow to understand retrotransposition rates in non-model organisms and show the potential for TE calling methods to study the evolutionary history of species. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13100-018-0143-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritjof Lammers
- 1Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics (LOEWE-TBG), Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,3Institute for Ecology, Evolution and Diversity, Goethe University Frankfurt, Biologicum, Max-von-Laue-Straße 13, 60439 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Moritz Blumer
- 1Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Cornelia Rücklé
- 1Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Maria A Nilsson
- 1Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics (LOEWE-TBG), Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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8
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Peng C, Niu L, Deng J, Yu J, Zhang X, Zhou C, Xing J, Li J. Can-SINE dynamics in the giant panda and three other Caniformia genomes. Mob DNA 2018; 9:32. [PMID: 30455747 PMCID: PMC6230240 DOI: 10.1186/s13100-018-0137-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although repeat sequences constitute about 37% of carnivore genomes, the characteristics and distribution of repeat sequences among carnivore genomes have not been fully investigated. Based on the updated Repbase library, we re-annotated transposable elements (TEs) in four Caniformia genomes (giant panda, polar bear, domestic dog, and domestic ferret) and performed a systematic, genome-wide comparison focusing on the Carnivora-specific SINE family, Can-SINEs. Results We found the majority of young recently integrated transposable elements are LINEs and SINEs in carnivore genomes. In particular, SINEC1_AMe, SINEC1B_AMe and SINEC_C1 are the top three most abundant Can-SINE subfamilies in the panda and polar bear genomes. Transposition in transposition analysis indicates that SINEC1_AMe and SINEC1B_AMe are the most active subfamilies in the panda and the polar bear genomes. SINEC2A1_CF and SINEC1A_CF subfamilies show a higher retrotransposition activity in the dog genome, and MVB2 subfamily is the most active Can-SINE in the ferret genome. As the giant panda is an endangered icon species, we then focused on the identification of panda specific Can-SINEs. With the panda-associated two-way genome alignments, we identified 250 putative panda-specific (PPS) elements (139 SINEC1_AMes and 111 SINEC1B_AMes) that inserted in the panda genome but were absent at the orthologous regions of the other three genomes. Further investigation of these PPS elements allowed us to identify a new Can-SINE subfamily, the SINEC1_AMe2, which was distinguishable from the current SINEC1_AMe consensus by four non-CpG sites. SINEC1_AMe2 has a high copy number (> 100,000) in the panda and polar bear genomes and the vast majority (> 96%) of the SINEC1_AMe2 elements have divergence rates less than 10% in both genomes. Conclusions Our results suggest that Can-SINEs show lineage-specific retransposition activity in the four genomes and have an important impact on the genomic landscape of different Caniformia lineages. Combining these observations with results from the COSEG, Network, and target site duplication analysis, we suggest that SINEC1_AMe2 is a young mobile element subfamily and currently active in both the panda and polar bear genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changjun Peng
- 1Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life and Sciences, University of Sichuan, Chengdu, China
| | - Lili Niu
- Sichuan Wild Animal Research Institute, Chengdu Zoo, Chengdu, China
| | - Jiabo Deng
- Sichuan Wild Animal Research Institute, Chengdu Zoo, Chengdu, China
| | - Jianqiu Yu
- Sichuan Wild Animal Research Institute, Chengdu Zoo, Chengdu, China
| | - Xueyan Zhang
- 1Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life and Sciences, University of Sichuan, Chengdu, China
| | - Chuang Zhou
- 3Sichuan Key Laboratory of Conservation Biology on Endangered Wildlife, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065 Sichuan China
| | - Jinchuan Xing
- 4Department of Genetics, Human Genetic Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ USA
| | - Jing Li
- 1Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life and Sciences, University of Sichuan, Chengdu, China
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9
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Suh A, Smeds L, Ellegren H. Abundant recent activity of retrovirus-like retrotransposons within and among flycatcher species implies a rich source of structural variation in songbird genomes. Mol Ecol 2017; 27:99-111. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Revised: 11/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Suh
- Department of Evolutionary Biology; Evolutionary Biology Centre (EBC); Uppsala University; Uppsala Sweden
| | - Linnéa Smeds
- Department of Evolutionary Biology; Evolutionary Biology Centre (EBC); Uppsala University; Uppsala Sweden
| | - Hans Ellegren
- Department of Evolutionary Biology; Evolutionary Biology Centre (EBC); Uppsala University; Uppsala Sweden
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10
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Kumar V, Lammers F, Bidon T, Pfenninger M, Kolter L, Nilsson MA, Janke A. The evolutionary history of bears is characterized by gene flow across species. Sci Rep 2017; 7:46487. [PMID: 28422140 PMCID: PMC5395953 DOI: 10.1038/srep46487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Bears are iconic mammals with a complex evolutionary history. Natural bear hybrids and studies of few nuclear genes indicate that gene flow among bears may be more common than expected and not limited to polar and brown bears. Here we present a genome analysis of the bear family with representatives of all living species. Phylogenomic analyses of 869 mega base pairs divided into 18,621 genome fragments yielded a well-resolved coalescent species tree despite signals for extensive gene flow across species. However, genome analyses using different statistical methods show that gene flow is not limited to closely related species pairs. Strong ancestral gene flow between the Asiatic black bear and the ancestor to polar, brown and American black bear explains uncertainties in reconstructing the bear phylogeny. Gene flow across the bear clade may be mediated by intermediate species such as the geographically wide-spread brown bears leading to large amounts of phylogenetic conflict. Genome-scale analyses lead to a more complete understanding of complex evolutionary processes. Evidence for extensive inter-specific gene flow, found also in other animal species, necessitates shifting the attention from speciation processes achieving genome-wide reproductive isolation to the selective processes that maintain species divergence in the face of gene flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikas Kumar
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung, Senckenberganlage 25, D-60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute for Ecology, Evolution &Diversity, Biologicum, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, D-60439 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Fritjof Lammers
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung, Senckenberganlage 25, D-60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute for Ecology, Evolution &Diversity, Biologicum, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, D-60439 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Tobias Bidon
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung, Senckenberganlage 25, D-60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute for Ecology, Evolution &Diversity, Biologicum, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, D-60439 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Markus Pfenninger
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung, Senckenberganlage 25, D-60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute for Ecology, Evolution &Diversity, Biologicum, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, D-60439 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Lydia Kolter
- AG Zoologischer Garten Cologne, Riehler Straße 173, 50735 Cologne, Germany
| | - Maria A Nilsson
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung, Senckenberganlage 25, D-60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Axel Janke
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung, Senckenberganlage 25, D-60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute for Ecology, Evolution &Diversity, Biologicum, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, D-60439 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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