1
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Ilan Y. Free Will as Defined by the Constrained Disorder Principle: a Restricted, Mandatory, Personalized, Regulated Process for Decision-Making. Integr Psychol Behav Sci 2024:10.1007/s12124-024-09853-9. [PMID: 38900370 DOI: 10.1007/s12124-024-09853-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
The concept of free will has challenged physicists, biologists, philosophers, and other professionals for decades. The constrained disorder principle (CDP) is a fundamental law that defines systems according to their inherent variability. It provides mechanisms for adapting to dynamic environments. This work examines the CDP's perspective of free will concerning various free will theories. Per the CDP, systems lack intentions, and the "freedom" to select and act is built into their design. The "freedom" is embedded within the response range determined by the boundaries of the systems' variability. This built-in and self-generating mechanism enables systems to cope with perturbations. According to the CDP, neither dualism nor an unknown metaphysical apparatus dictates choices. Brain variability facilitates cognitive adaptation to complex, unpredictable situations across various environments. Human behaviors and decisions reflect an underlying physical variability in the brain and other organs for dealing with unpredictable noises. Choices are not predetermined but reflect the ongoing adaptation processes to dynamic prssu½res. Malfunctions and disease states are characterized by inappropriate variability, reflecting an inability to respond adequately to perturbations. Incorporating CDP-based interventions can overcome malfunctions and disease states and improve decision processes. CDP-based second-generation artificial intelligence platforms improve interventions and are being evaluated to augment personal development, wellness, and health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaron Ilan
- Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University and Department of Medicine, Hadassah Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel.
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2
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Alkan C, Brésard G, Frézal L, Richaud A, Ruaud A, Zhang G, Félix MA. Natural variation in infection specificity of Caenorhabditis briggsae isolates by two RNA viruses. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012259. [PMID: 38861582 PMCID: PMC11195985 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2024] [Revised: 06/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Antagonistic relationships such as host-virus interactions potentially lead to rapid evolution and specificity in interactions. The Orsay virus is so far the only horizontal virus naturally infecting the nematode C. elegans. In contrast, several related RNA viruses infect its congener C. briggsae, including Santeuil (SANTV) and Le Blanc (LEBV) viruses. Here we focus on the host's intraspecific variation in sensitivity to these two intestinal viruses. Many temperate-origin C. briggsae strains, including JU1264 and JU1498, are sensitive to both, while many tropical strains, such as AF16, are resistant to both. Interestingly, some C. briggsae strains exhibit a specific resistance, such as the HK104 strain, specifically resistant to LEBV. The viral sensitivity pattern matches the strains' geographic and genomic relationships. The heavily infected strains mount a seemingly normal small RNA response that is insufficient to suppress viral infection, while the resistant strains show no small RNA response, suggesting an early block in viral entry or replication. We use a genetic approach from the host side to map genomic regions participating in viral resistance polymorphisms. Using Advanced Intercrossed Recombinant Inbred Lines (RILs) between virus-resistant AF16 and SANTV-sensitive HK104, we detect Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) on chromosomes IV and III. Building RILs between virus-sensitive JU1498 and LEBV-resistant HK104 followed by bulk segregant analysis, we identify a chromosome II QTL. In both cases, further introgressions of the regions confirmed the QTLs. This diversity provides an avenue for studying virus entry, replication, and exit mechanisms, as well as host-virus specificity and the host response to a specific virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cigdem Alkan
- IBENS, Department of Biology, Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Gautier Brésard
- IBENS, Department of Biology, Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Lise Frézal
- IBENS, Department of Biology, Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, PSL Research University, Paris, France
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Unité des Bactéries pathogènes entériques Paris, Paris, France
| | - Aurélien Richaud
- IBENS, Department of Biology, Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Albane Ruaud
- IBENS, Department of Biology, Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Gaotian Zhang
- IBENS, Department of Biology, Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Marie-Anne Félix
- IBENS, Department of Biology, Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, PSL Research University, Paris, France
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3
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González R, Félix MA. Caenorhabditis elegans immune responses to microsporidia and viruses. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2024; 154:105148. [PMID: 38325500 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2024.105148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
The model organism Caenorhabditis elegans is susceptible to infection by obligate intracellular pathogens, specifically microsporidia and viruses. These intracellular pathogens infect intestinal cells, or, for some microsporidia, epidermal cells. Strikingly, intestinal cell infections by viruses or microsporidia trigger a common transcriptional response, activated in part by the ZIP-1 transcription factor. Among the strongest activated genes in this response are ubiquitin-pathway members and members of the pals family, an intriguing gene family with cross-regulations of different members of genomic clusters. Some of the induced genes participate in host defense against the pathogens, for example through ubiquitin-mediated inhibition. Other mechanisms defend the host specifically against viral infections, including antiviral RNA interference and uridylation. These various immune responses are altered by environmental factors and by intraspecific genetic variation of the host. These pathogens were first isolated 15 years ago and much remains to be discovered using C. elegans genetics; also, other intracellular pathogens of C. elegans may yet to be discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubén González
- Institut de Biologie de l'École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, 75005, Paris, France.
| | - Marie-Anne Félix
- Institut de Biologie de l'École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, 75005, Paris, France
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4
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Parée T, Noble L, Ferreira Gonçalves J, Teotónio H. rec-1 loss of function increases recombination in the central gene clusters at the expense of autosomal pairing centers. Genetics 2024; 226:iyad205. [PMID: 38001364 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyad205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Meiotic control of crossover (CO) number and position is critical for homologous chromosome segregation and organismal fertility, recombination of parental genotypes, and the generation of novel genetic combinations. We here characterize the recombination rate landscape of a rec-1 loss of function modifier of CO position in Caenorhabditis elegans, one of the first ever modifiers discovered. By averaging CO position across hermaphrodite and male meioses and by genotyping 203 single-nucleotide variants covering about 95% of the genome, we find that the characteristic chromosomal arm-center recombination rate domain structure is lost in the loss of function rec-1 mutant. The rec-1 loss of function mutant smooths the recombination rate landscape but is insufficient to eliminate the nonuniform position of CO. Lower recombination rates in the rec-1 mutant are particularly found in the autosomal arm domains containing the pairing centers. We further find that the rec-1 mutant is of little consequence for organismal fertility and egg viability and thus for rates of autosomal nondisjunction. It nonetheless increases X chromosome nondisjunction rates and thus male appearance. Our findings question the maintenance of recombination rate heritability and genetic diversity among C. elegans natural populations, and they further suggest that manipulating genetic modifiers of CO position will help find quantitative trait loci located in low-recombining genomic regions normally refractory to discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Parée
- Institut de Biologie de l'École Normale Supérieure, CNRS UMR, 8197, Inserm U1024, PSL Research University, Paris F-75005, France
| | - Luke Noble
- Institut de Biologie de l'École Normale Supérieure, CNRS UMR, 8197, Inserm U1024, PSL Research University, Paris F-75005, France
- EnviroDNA, 95 Albert St., Brunswick, Victoria 3065, Australia
| | - João Ferreira Gonçalves
- Institut de Biologie de l'École Normale Supérieure, CNRS UMR, 8197, Inserm U1024, PSL Research University, Paris F-75005, France
| | - Henrique Teotónio
- Institut de Biologie de l'École Normale Supérieure, CNRS UMR, 8197, Inserm U1024, PSL Research University, Paris F-75005, France
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5
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Wolstenholme AJ, Andersen EC, Choudhary S, Ebner F, Hartmann S, Holden-Dye L, Kashyap SS, Krücken J, Martin RJ, Midha A, Nejsum P, Neveu C, Robertson AP, von Samson-Himmelstjerna G, Walker R, Wang J, Whitehead BJ, Williams PDE. Getting around the roundworms: Identifying knowledge gaps and research priorities for the ascarids. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2024; 123:51-123. [PMID: 38448148 PMCID: PMC11143470 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2023.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
The ascarids are a large group of parasitic nematodes that infect a wide range of animal species. In humans, they cause neglected diseases of poverty; many animal parasites also cause zoonotic infections in people. Control measures include hygiene and anthelmintic treatments, but they are not always appropriate or effective and this creates a continuing need to search for better ways to reduce the human, welfare and economic costs of these infections. To this end, Le Studium Institute of Advanced Studies organized a two-day conference to identify major gaps in our understanding of ascarid parasites with a view to setting research priorities that would allow for improved control. The participants identified several key areas for future focus, comprising of advances in genomic analysis and the use of model organisms, especially Caenorhabditis elegans, a more thorough appreciation of the complexity of host-parasite (and parasite-parasite) communications, a search for novel anthelmintic drugs and the development of effective vaccines. The participants agreed to try and maintain informal links in the future that could form the basis for collaborative projects, and to co-operate to organize future meetings and workshops to promote ascarid research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian J Wolstenholme
- Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement (INRAE), Université de Tours, ISP, Nouzilly, France.
| | - Erik C Andersen
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Shivani Choudhary
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Friederike Ebner
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany
| | - Susanne Hartmann
- Institute for Immunology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lindy Holden-Dye
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Sudhanva S Kashyap
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Jürgen Krücken
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Richard J Martin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Ankur Midha
- Institute for Immunology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter Nejsum
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Cedric Neveu
- Institut National de Recherche pour l'Agriculture, l'Alimentation et l'Environnement (INRAE), Université de Tours, ISP, Nouzilly, France
| | - Alan P Robertson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | | | - Robert Walker
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Jianbin Wang
- Department of Biochemistry & Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States
| | | | - Paul D E Williams
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
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6
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van Eijnatten AL, Sterken MG, Kammenga JE, Nijveen H, Snoek BL. The effect of developmental variation on expression QTLs in a multi parental Caenorhabditis elegans population. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2024; 14:jkad273. [PMID: 38015660 PMCID: PMC10849341 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkad273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023]
Abstract
Regulation of gene expression plays a crucial role in developmental processes and adaptation to changing environments. expression quantitative trait locus (eQTL) mapping is a technique used to study the genetic regulation of gene expression using the transcriptomes of recombinant inbred lines (RILs). Typically, the age of the inbred lines at the time of RNA sampling is carefully controlled. This is necessary because the developmental process causes changes in gene expression, complicating the interpretation of eQTL mapping experiments. However, due to genetics and variation in ambient micro-environments, organisms can differ in their "developmental age," even if they are of the same chronological age. As a result, eQTL patterns are affected by developmental variation in gene expression. The model organism Caenorhabditis elegans is particularly suited for studying the effect of developmental variation on eQTL mapping patterns. In a span of days, C. elegans transitions from embryo through 4 larval stages to adult while undergoing massive changes to its transcriptome. Here, we use C. elegans to investigate the effect of developmental age variation on eQTL patterns and present a normalization procedure. We used dynamical eQTL mapping, which includes the developmental age as a cofactor, to separate the variation in development from genotypic variation and explain variation in gene expression levels. We compare classical single marker eQTL mapping and dynamical eQTL mapping using RNA-seq data of ∼200 multi-parental RILs of C. elegans. The results show that (1) many eQTLs are caused by developmental variation, (2) most trans-bands are developmental QTLs, and (3) dynamical eQTL mapping detects additional eQTLs not found with classical eQTL mapping. We recommend that correction for variation in developmental age should be strongly considered in eQTL mapping studies given the large impact of processes like development on the transcriptome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abraham L van Eijnatten
- Theoretical Biology and Bioinformatics, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8,3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Mark G Sterken
- Laboratory of Nematology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan E Kammenga
- Laboratory of Nematology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Harm Nijveen
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, Radix West, Building 107, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Basten L Snoek
- Theoretical Biology and Bioinformatics, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8,3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
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7
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Moerdyk-Schauwecker MJ, Jahahn EK, Muñoz ZI, Robinson KJ, Phillips PC. Expansion of the split hygromycin toolkit for transgene insertion in Caenorhabditis elegans. MICROPUBLICATION BIOLOGY 2024; 2024:10.17912/micropub.biology.001091. [PMID: 38351905 PMCID: PMC10862133 DOI: 10.17912/micropub.biology.001091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Engineered sites for genetic transformation have simplified transgene insertion in Caenorhabditis elegans . These strategies include our split hygromycin system (Stevenson et al. 2020) which allows for integration-specific selection of transgenes. Here we have expanded the split hygromycin selection system to include two additional chromosomal locations, both of which are permissive for germline expression, as well as engineered landing pads in three additional natural isolates. Corresponding guide and empty repair template plasmids are also available for each of these sites.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Erin K Jahahn
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States
| | - Zachariah I Muñoz
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States
| | - Kristin J Robinson
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States
| | - Patrick C Phillips
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States
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8
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Al-Jawabreh R, Lastik D, McKenzie D, Reynolds K, Suleiman M, Mousley A, Atkinson L, Hunt V. Advancing Strongyloides omics data: bridging the gap with Caenorhabditis elegans. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20220437. [PMID: 38008117 PMCID: PMC10676819 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Among nematodes, the free-living model organism Caenorhabditis elegans boasts the most advanced portfolio of high-quality omics data. The resources available for parasitic nematodes, including Strongyloides spp., however, are lagging behind. While C. elegans remains the most tractable nematode and has significantly advanced our understanding of many facets of nematode biology, C. elegans is not suitable as a surrogate system for the study of parasitism and it is important that we improve the omics resources available for parasitic nematode species. Here, we review the omics data available for Strongyloides spp. and compare the available resources to those for C. elegans and other parasitic nematodes. The advancements in C. elegans omics offer a blueprint for improving omics-led research in Strongyloides. We suggest areas of priority for future research that will pave the way for expansions in omics resources and technologies. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Strongyloides: omics to worm-free populations'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reem Al-Jawabreh
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Dominika Lastik
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | | | - Kieran Reynolds
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Mona Suleiman
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | | | | | - Vicky Hunt
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
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9
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Crombie TA, McKeown R, Moya ND, Evans K, Widmayer S, LaGrassa V, Roman N, Tursunova O, Zhang G, Gibson S, Buchanan C, Roberto N, Vieira R, Tanny R, Andersen E. CaeNDR, the Caenorhabditis Natural Diversity Resource. Nucleic Acids Res 2024; 52:D850-D858. [PMID: 37855690 PMCID: PMC10767927 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies of model organisms have provided important insights into how natural genetic differences shape trait variation. These discoveries are driven by the growing availability of genomes and the expansive experimental toolkits afforded to researchers using these species. For example, Caenorhabditis elegans is increasingly being used to identify and measure the effects of natural genetic variants on traits using quantitative genetics. Since 2016, the C. elegans Natural Diversity Resource (CeNDR) has facilitated many of these studies by providing an archive of wild strains, genome-wide sequence and variant data for each strain, and a genome-wide association (GWA) mapping portal for the C. elegans community. Here, we present an updated platform, the Caenorhabditis Natural Diversity Resource (CaeNDR), that enables quantitative genetics and genomics studies across the three Caenorhabditis species: C. elegans, C. briggsae and C. tropicalis. The CaeNDR platform hosts several databases that are continually updated by the addition of new strains, whole-genome sequence data and annotated variants. Additionally, CaeNDR provides new interactive tools to explore natural variation and enable GWA mappings. All CaeNDR data and tools are accessible through a freely available web portal located at caendr.org.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy A Crombie
- Department of Biomedical and Chemical Engineering and Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, USA
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Ryan McKeown
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
- Interdisciplinary Biological Sciences Program, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Nicolas D Moya
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Cell, Molecular, Developmental biology, and Biophysics Graduate Program, ohns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kathryn S Evans
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Samuel J Widmayer
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Vincent LaGrassa
- Northwestern University Information Technology, Media and Technology Innovation, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - Natalie Roman
- Northwestern University Information Technology, Media and Technology Innovation, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - Orzu Tursunova
- Northwestern University Information Technology, Media and Technology Innovation, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - Gaotian Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Sophia B Gibson
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Claire M Buchanan
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Nicole M Roberto
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Rodolfo Vieira
- Northwestern University Information Technology, Media and Technology Innovation, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - Robyn E Tanny
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Erik C Andersen
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
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10
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Frézal L, Saglio M, Zhang G, Noble L, Richaud A, Félix MA. Genome-wide association and environmental suppression of the mortal germline phenotype of wild C. elegans. EMBO Rep 2023; 24:e58116. [PMID: 37983674 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202358116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The animal germline lineage needs to be maintained along generations. However, some Caenorhabditis elegans wild isolates display a mortal germline phenotype, leading to sterility after several generations at 25°C. Using a genome-wide association approach, we detect a significant peak on chromosome III around 5 Mb, confirmed by introgressions. Thus, a seemingly deleterious genotype is maintained at intermediate frequency in the species. Environmental rescue is a likely explanation, and indeed associated bacteria and microsporidia suppress the phenotype of wild isolates as well as mutants in small RNA inheritance (nrde-2) and histone modifications (set-2). Escherichia coli strains of the K-12 lineage suppress the phenotype compared to B strains. By shifting a wild strain from E. coli K-12 to E. coli B, we find that memory of the suppressing condition is maintained over several generations. Thus, the mortal germline phenotype of wild C. elegans is in part revealed by laboratory conditions and may represent variation in epigenetic inheritance and environmental interactions. This study also points to the importance of non-genetic memory in the face of environmental variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lise Frézal
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, Paris, France
| | - Marie Saglio
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, Paris, France
| | - Gaotian Zhang
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, Paris, France
| | - Luke Noble
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, Paris, France
| | - Aurélien Richaud
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, Paris, France
| | - Marie-Anne Félix
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Inserm, Paris, France
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11
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Stevens L, Martínez-Ugalde I, King E, Wagah M, Absolon D, Bancroft R, Gonzalez de la Rosa P, Hall JL, Kieninger M, Kloch A, Pelan S, Robertson E, Pedersen AB, Abreu-Goodger C, Buck AH, Blaxter M. Ancient diversity in host-parasite interaction genes in a model parasitic nematode. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7776. [PMID: 38012132 PMCID: PMC10682056 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43556-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Host-parasite interactions exert strong selection pressures on the genomes of both host and parasite. These interactions can lead to negative frequency-dependent selection, a form of balancing selection that is hypothesised to explain the high levels of polymorphism seen in many host immune and parasite antigen loci. Here, we sequence the genomes of several individuals of Heligmosomoides bakeri, a model parasite of house mice, and Heligmosomoides polygyrus, a closely related parasite of wood mice. Although H. bakeri is commonly referred to as H. polygyrus in the literature, their genomes show levels of divergence that are consistent with at least a million years of independent evolution. The genomes of both species contain hyper-divergent haplotypes that are enriched for proteins that interact with the host immune response. Many of these haplotypes originated prior to the divergence between H. bakeri and H. polygyrus, suggesting that they have been maintained by long-term balancing selection. Together, our results suggest that the selection pressures exerted by the host immune response have played a key role in shaping patterns of genetic diversity in the genomes of parasitic nematodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lewis Stevens
- Tree of Life, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, UK.
| | - Isaac Martínez-Ugalde
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Erna King
- Tree of Life, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, UK
| | - Martin Wagah
- Tree of Life, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, UK
| | | | - Rowan Bancroft
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | | | - Jessica L Hall
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | | | | | - Sarah Pelan
- Tree of Life, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, UK
| | - Elaine Robertson
- Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Amy B Pedersen
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Cei Abreu-Goodger
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Amy H Buck
- Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Mark Blaxter
- Tree of Life, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, UK.
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12
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Bobinski M, Pilgrim D. A dominant dpy-10 co-transformation marker using CRISPR/Cas9 and a linear repair template in Caenorhabditis tropicalis. MICROPUBLICATION BIOLOGY 2023; 2023:10.17912/micropub.biology.000900. [PMID: 38021174 PMCID: PMC10656624 DOI: 10.17912/micropub.biology.000900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Revised: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Caenorhabditis elegans is an excellent genetic model system with a large arsenal of forward and reverse genetic techniques. However, not all approaches are easily ported to related Caenorhabditis species (which are useful for gene conservation and gene pathway evolution studies). For CRISPR/Cas9 genetic editing, an easily screenable and dominant co-transformation marker is required - a secondary mutation that won't impact the phenotype of a desired mutation but is capable of being screened for in heterozygous mutants. We describe here the adaptation of a dominant dumpy/roller CRISPR/Cas9-induced mutation in the C. tropicalis dpy-10 orthologue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Montana Bobinski
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - David Pilgrim
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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13
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Yeon J, Porwal C, McGrath PT, Sengupta P. Identification of a spontaneously arising variant affecting thermotaxis behavior in a recombinant inbred Caenorhabditis elegans line. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2023; 13:jkad186. [PMID: 37572357 PMCID: PMC10542565 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkad186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/14/2023]
Abstract
Analyses of the contributions of genetic variants in wild strains to phenotypic differences have led to a more complete description of the pathways underlying cellular functions. Causal loci are typically identified via interbreeding of strains with distinct phenotypes in order to establish recombinant inbred lines (RILs). Since the generation of RILs requires growth for multiple generations, their genomes may contain not only different combinations of parental alleles but also genetic changes that arose de novo during the establishment of these lines. Here, we report that in the course of generating RILs between Caenorhabditis elegans strains that exhibit distinct thermotaxis behavioral phenotypes, we identified spontaneously arising variants in the ttx-1 locus. ttx-1 encodes the terminal selector factor for the AFD thermosensory neurons, and loss-of-function mutations in ttx-1 abolish thermotaxis behaviors. The identified genetic changes in ttx-1 in the RIL are predicted to decrease ttx-1 function in part via specifically affecting a subset of AFD-expressed ttx-1 isoforms. Introduction of the relevant missense mutation in the laboratory C. elegans strain via gene editing recapitulates the thermotaxis behavioral defects of the RIL. Our results suggest that spontaneously occurring genomic changes in RILs may complicate identification of loci contributing to phenotypic variation, but that these mutations may nevertheless lead to the identification of important causal molecules and mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihye Yeon
- Department of Biology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02454, USA
| | - Charmi Porwal
- Department of Biology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02454, USA
| | - Patrick T McGrath
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Piali Sengupta
- Department of Biology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02454, USA
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14
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Bell AD, Chou HT, Valencia F, Paaby AB. Beyond the reference: gene expression variation and transcriptional response to RNA interference in Caenorhabditis elegans. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2023; 13:jkad112. [PMID: 37221008 PMCID: PMC10411595 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkad112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Though natural systems harbor genetic and phenotypic variation, research in model organisms is often restricted to a reference strain. Focusing on a reference strain yields a great depth of knowledge but potentially at the cost of breadth of understanding. Furthermore, tools developed in the reference context may introduce bias when applied to other strains, posing challenges to defining the scope of variation within model systems. Here, we evaluate how genetic differences among 5 wild Caenorhabditis elegans strains affect gene expression and its quantification, in general and after induction of the RNA interference (RNAi) response. Across strains, 34% of genes were differentially expressed in the control condition, including 411 genes that were not expressed at all in at least 1 strain; 49 of these were unexpressed in reference strain N2. Reference genome mapping bias caused limited concern: despite hyperdiverse hotspots throughout the genome, 92% of variably expressed genes were robust to mapping issues. The transcriptional response to RNAi was highly strain- and target-gene-specific and did not correlate with RNAi efficiency, as the 2 RNAi-insensitive strains showed more differentially expressed genes following RNAi treatment than the RNAi-sensitive reference strain. We conclude that gene expression, generally and in response to RNAi, differs across C. elegans strains such that the choice of strain may meaningfully influence scientific inferences. Finally, we introduce a resource for querying gene expression variation in this dataset at https://wildworm.biosci.gatech.edu/rnai/.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery Davis Bell
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Dr NW, EBB Building, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Han Ting Chou
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Dr NW, EBB Building, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Francisco Valencia
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Dr NW, EBB Building, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Annalise B Paaby
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Dr NW, EBB Building, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
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15
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Teterina AA, Willis JH, Lukac M, Jovelin R, Cutter AD, Phillips PC. Genomic diversity landscapes in outcrossing and selfing Caenorhabditis nematodes. PLoS Genet 2023; 19:e1010879. [PMID: 37585484 PMCID: PMC10461856 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1010879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Caenorhabditis nematodes form an excellent model for studying how the mode of reproduction affects genetic diversity, as some species reproduce via outcrossing whereas others can self-fertilize. Currently, chromosome-level patterns of diversity and recombination are only available for self-reproducing Caenorhabditis, making the generality of genomic patterns across the genus unclear given the profound potential influence of reproductive mode. Here we present a whole-genome diversity landscape, coupled with a new genetic map, for the outcrossing nematode C. remanei. We demonstrate that the genomic distribution of recombination in C. remanei, like the model nematode C. elegans, shows high recombination rates on chromosome arms and low rates toward the central regions. Patterns of genetic variation across the genome are also similar between these species, but differ dramatically in scale, being tenfold greater for C. remanei. Historical reconstructions of variation in effective population size over the past million generations echo this difference in polymorphism. Evolutionary simulations demonstrate how selection, recombination, mutation, and selfing shape variation along the genome, and that multiple drivers can produce patterns similar to those observed in natural populations. The results illustrate how genome organization and selection play a crucial role in shaping the genomic pattern of diversity whereas demographic processes scale the level of diversity across the genome as a whole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia A. Teterina
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
- Center of Parasitology, Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution RAS, Moscow, Russia
| | - John H. Willis
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Matt Lukac
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Richard Jovelin
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Asher D. Cutter
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Patrick C. Phillips
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
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16
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Wrobel CJJ, Schroeder FC. Repurposing degradation pathways for modular metabolite biosynthesis in nematodes. Nat Chem Biol 2023; 19:676-686. [PMID: 37024728 PMCID: PMC10559835 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-023-01301-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have revealed that Caenorhabditis elegans and other nematodes repurpose products from biochemical degradation pathways for the combinatorial assembly of complex modular structures that serve diverse signaling functions. Building blocks from neurotransmitter, amino acid, nucleoside and fatty acid metabolism are attached to scaffolds based on the dideoxyhexose ascarylose or glucose, resulting in hundreds of modular ascarosides and glucosides. Genome-wide association studies have identified carboxylesterases as the key enzymes mediating modular assembly, enabling rapid compound discovery via untargeted metabolomics and suggesting that modular metabolite biosynthesis originates from the 'hijacking' of conserved detoxification mechanisms. Modular metabolites thus represent a distinct biosynthetic strategy for generating structural and functional diversity in nematodes, complementing the primarily polyketide synthase- and nonribosomal peptide synthetase-derived universe of microbial natural products. Although many aspects of modular metabolite biosynthesis and function remain to be elucidated, their identification demonstrates how phenotype-driven compound discovery, untargeted metabolomics and genomic approaches can synergize to facilitate the annotation of metabolic dark matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chester J J Wrobel
- Boyce Thompson Institute and Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Frank C Schroeder
- Boyce Thompson Institute and Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
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17
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Bell AD, Chou HT, Paaby AB. Beyond the reference: gene expression variation and transcriptional response to RNAi in C. elegans. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.03.24.533964. [PMID: 36993640 PMCID: PMC10055391 DOI: 10.1101/2023.03.24.533964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
A universal feature of living systems is that natural variation in genotype underpins variation in phenotype. Yet, research in model organisms is often constrained to a single genetic background, the reference strain. Further, genomic studies that do evaluate wild strains typically rely on the reference strain genome for read alignment, leading to the possibility of biased inferences based on incomplete or inaccurate mapping; the extent of reference bias can be difficult to quantify. As an intermediary between genome and organismal traits, gene expression is well positioned to describe natural variability across genotypes generally and in the context of environmental responses, which can represent complex adaptive phenotypes. C. elegans sits at the forefront of investigation into small-RNA gene regulatory mechanisms, or RNA interference (RNAi), and wild strains exhibit natural variation in RNAi competency following environmental triggers. Here, we examine how genetic differences among five wild strains affect the C. elegans transcriptome in general and after inducing RNAi responses to two germline target genes. Approximately 34% of genes were differentially expressed across strains; 411 genes were not expressed at all in at least one strain despite robust expression in others, including 49 genes not expressed in reference strain N2. Despite the presence of hyper-diverse hotspots throughout the C. elegans genome, reference mapping bias was of limited concern: over 92% of variably expressed genes were robust to mapping issues. Overall, the transcriptional response to RNAi was strongly strain-specific and highly specific to the target gene, and the laboratory strain N2 was not representative of the other strains. Moreover, the transcriptional response to RNAi was not correlated with RNAi phenotypic penetrance; the two germline RNAi incompetent strains exhibited substantial differential gene expression following RNAi treatment, indicating an RNAi response despite failure to reduce expression of the target gene. We conclude that gene expression, both generally and in response to RNAi, differs across C. elegans strains such that choice of strain may meaningfully influence scientific conclusions. To provide a public, easily accessible resource for querying gene expression variation in this dataset, we introduce an interactive website at https://wildworm.biosci.gatech.edu/rnai/ .
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery Davis Bell
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA
| | - Han Ting Chou
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA
| | - Annalise B. Paaby
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA
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18
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Jiranek J, Gibson A. Diet can alter the cost of resistance to a natural parasite in Caenorhabditis elegans. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e9793. [PMID: 36789344 PMCID: PMC9911625 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Resistance to parasites confers a fitness advantage, yet hosts show substantial variation in resistance in natural populations. Evolutionary theory indicates that resistant and susceptible genotypes can coexist if resistance is costly, but there is mixed evidence that resistant individuals have lower fitness in the absence of parasites. One explanation for this discrepancy is that the cost of resistance varies with environmental context. We tested this hypothesis using Caenorhabditis elegans and its natural microsporidian parasite, Nematocida ironsii. We used multiple metrics to compare the fitness of two near-isogenic host genotypes differing at regions associated with resistance to N. ironsii. To quantify the effect of the environment on the cost associated with these known resistance regions, we measured fitness on three microbial diets. We found that the cost of resistance varied with both diet and the measure of fitness. We detected no cost to resistance, irrespective of diet, when fitness was measured as fecundity. However, we detected a cost when fitness was measured in terms of population growth, and the magnitude of this cost varied with diet. These results provide a proof of concept that, by mediating the cost of resistance, environmental context may govern the rate and nature of resistance evolution in heterogeneous environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Jiranek
- Department of BiologyUniversity of VirginiaCharlottesvilleVirginiaUSA
| | - Amanda Gibson
- Department of BiologyUniversity of VirginiaCharlottesvilleVirginiaUSA
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19
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Nyaanga J, Andersen EC. Linkage mapping reveals loci that underlie differences in Caenorhabditis elegans growth. G3 GENES|GENOMES|GENETICS 2022; 12:6663991. [PMID: 35961034 PMCID: PMC9526057 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkac207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Growth rate and body size are complex traits that contribute to the fitness of organisms. The identification of loci that underlie differences in these traits provides insights into the genetic contributions to development. Leveraging Caenorhabditis elegans as a tractable metazoan model for quantitative genetics, we can identify genomic regions that underlie differences in growth. We measured postembryonic growth of the laboratory-adapted wild-type strain (N2) and a wild strain from Hawaii (CB4856) and found differences in body size. Using linkage mapping, we identified three distinct quantitative trait loci (QTL) on chromosomes IV, V, and X that are associated with variation in body growth. We further examined these growth-associated quantitative trait loci using chromosome substitution strains and near-isogenic lines and validated the chromosome X quantitative trait loci. In addition, we generated a list of candidate genes for the chromosome X quantitative trait loci. These genes could potentially contribute to differences in animal growth and should be evaluated in subsequent studies. Our work reveals the genetic architecture underlying animal growth variation and highlights the genetic complexity of growth in Caenorhabditis elegans natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joy Nyaanga
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University , Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Interdisciplinary Biological Sciences Program, Northwestern University , Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Erik C Andersen
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University , Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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20
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Sloat SA, Noble LM, Paaby AB, Bernstein M, Chang A, Kaur T, Yuen J, Tintori SC, Jackson JL, Martel A, Salome Correa JA, Stevens L, Kiontke K, Blaxter M, Rockman MV. Caenorhabditis nematodes colonize ephemeral resource patches in neotropical forests. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9124. [PMID: 35898425 PMCID: PMC9309040 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Factors shaping the distribution and abundance of species include life-history traits, population structure, and stochastic colonization-extinction dynamics. Field studies of model species groups help reveal the roles of these factors. Species of Caenorhabditis nematodes are highly divergent at the sequence level but exhibit highly conserved morphology, and many of these species live in sympatry on microbe-rich patches of rotten material. Here, we use field experiments and large-scale opportunistic collections to investigate species composition, abundance, and colonization efficiency of Caenorhabditis species in two of the world's best-studied lowland tropical field sites: Barro Colorado Island in Panamá and La Selva in Sarapiquí, Costa Rica. We observed seven species of Caenorhabditis, four of them known only from these collections. We formally describe two species and place them within the Caenorhabditis phylogeny. While these localities contain species from many parts of the phylogeny, both localities were dominated by globally distributed androdiecious species. We found that Caenorhabditis individuals were able to colonize baits accessible only through phoresy and preferentially colonized baits that were in direct contact with the ground. We estimate the number of colonization events per patch to be low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solomon A. Sloat
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - Luke M. Noble
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - Annalise B. Paaby
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- School of Biological SciencesGeorgia Institute of TechnologyAtlantaGeorgiaUSA
| | - Max Bernstein
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - Audrey Chang
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - Taniya Kaur
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Department of Molecular and Cell BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaBerkeleyCaliforniaUSA
| | - John Yuen
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
- Renaissance School of MedicineStony Brook UniversityStony BrookNew YorkUSA
| | - Sophia C. Tintori
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - Jacqueline L. Jackson
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - Arielle Martel
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - Jose A. Salome Correa
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | | | - Karin Kiontke
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - Mark Blaxter
- Tree of Life, Wellcome Sanger InstituteHinxtonUK
| | - Matthew V. Rockman
- Department of Biology and Center for Genomics and Systems BiologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew YorkUSA
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