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Moya-Gonzálvez EM, Zeuner B, Thorhallsson AT, Holck J, Palomino-Schätzlein M, Rodríguez-Díaz J, Meyer AS, Yebra MJ. Synthesis of fucosyllactose using α-L-fucosidases GH29 from infant gut microbial metagenome. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2024; 108:338. [PMID: 38771321 PMCID: PMC11108932 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-024-13178-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Fucosyl-oligosaccharides (FUS) provide many health benefits to breastfed infants, but they are almost completely absent from bovine milk, which is the basis of infant formula. Therefore, there is a growing interest in the development of enzymatic transfucosylation strategies for the production of FUS. In this work, the α-L-fucosidases Fuc2358 and Fuc5372, previously isolated from the intestinal bacterial metagenome of breastfed infants, were used to synthesize fucosyllactose (FL) by transfucosylation reactions using p-nitrophenyl-α-L-fucopyranoside (pNP-Fuc) as donor and lactose as acceptor. Fuc2358 efficiently synthesized the major fucosylated human milk oligosaccharide (HMO) 2'-fucosyllactose (2'FL) with a 35% yield. Fuc2358 also produced the non-HMO FL isomer 3'-fucosyllactose (3'FL) and traces of non-reducing 1-fucosyllactose (1FL). Fuc5372 showed a lower transfucosylation activity compared to Fuc2358, producing several FL isomers, including 2'FL, 3'FL, and 1FL, with a higher proportion of 3'FL. Site-directed mutagenesis using rational design was performed to increase FUS yields in both α-L-fucosidases, based on structural models and sequence identity analysis. Mutants Fuc2358-F184H, Fuc2358-K286R, and Fuc5372-R230K showed a significantly higher ratio between 2'FL yields and hydrolyzed pNP-Fuc than their respective wild-type enzymes after 4 h of transfucosylation. The results with the Fuc2358-F184W and Fuc5372-W151F mutants showed that the residues F184 of Fuc2358 and W151 of Fuc5372 could have an effect on transfucosylation regioselectivity. Interestingly, phenylalanine increases the selectivity for α-1,2 linkages and tryptophan for α-1,3 linkages. These results give insight into the functionality of the active site amino acids in the transfucosylation activity of the GH29 α-L-fucosidases Fuc2358 and Fuc5372. KEY POINTS: Two α-L-fucosidases from infant gut bacterial microbiomes can fucosylate glycans Transfucosylation efficacy improved by tailored point-mutations in the active site F184 of Fuc2358 and W151 of Fuc5372 seem to steer transglycosylation regioselectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva M Moya-Gonzálvez
- Laboratorio de Bacterias Lácticas y Probióticos, Departamento de Biotecnología de Alimentos, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain
| | - Birgitte Zeuner
- Protein Chemistry and Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Albert Th Thorhallsson
- Protein Chemistry and Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Jesper Holck
- Protein Chemistry and Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Jesús Rodríguez-Díaz
- Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Anne S Meyer
- Protein Chemistry and Enzyme Technology, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - María J Yebra
- Laboratorio de Bacterias Lácticas y Probióticos, Departamento de Biotecnología de Alimentos, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain.
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2
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Macdonald JFH, Pérez-García P, Schneider YKH, Blümke P, Indenbirken D, Andersen JH, Krohn I, Streit WR. Community dynamics and metagenomic analyses reveal Bacteroidota's role in widespread enzymatic Fucus vesiculosus cell wall degradation. Sci Rep 2024; 14:10237. [PMID: 38702505 PMCID: PMC11068906 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-60978-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Enzymatic degradation of algae cell wall carbohydrates by microorganisms is under increasing investigation as marine organic matter gains more value as a sustainable resource. The fate of carbon in the marine ecosystem is in part driven by these degradation processes. In this study, we observe the microbiome dynamics of the macroalga Fucus vesiculosus in 25-day-enrichment cultures resulting in partial degradation of the brown algae. Microbial community analyses revealed the phylum Pseudomonadota as the main bacterial fraction dominated by the genera Marinomonas and Vibrio. More importantly, a metagenome-based Hidden Markov model for specific glycosyl hydrolyses and sulphatases identified Bacteroidota as the phylum with the highest potential for cell wall degradation, contrary to their low abundance. For experimental verification, we cloned, expressed, and biochemically characterised two α-L-fucosidases, FUJM18 and FUJM20. While protein structure predictions suggest the highest similarity to a Bacillota origin, protein-protein blasts solely showed weak similarities to defined Bacteroidota proteins. Both enzymes were remarkably active at elevated temperatures and are the basis for a potential synthetic enzyme cocktail for large-scale algal destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jascha F H Macdonald
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Biocenter Klein Flottbek, Institute of Plant Science and Microbiology, University of Hamburg, Ohnhorststr.18, 22609, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Pablo Pérez-García
- Institute for General Microbiology, Molecular Microbiology, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Yannik K-H Schneider
- Marbio, Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Patrick Blümke
- Technology Platform Next Generation Sequencing, Leibniz Institute of Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Daniela Indenbirken
- Technology Platform Next Generation Sequencing, Leibniz Institute of Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jeanette H Andersen
- Marbio, Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Ines Krohn
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Biocenter Klein Flottbek, Institute of Plant Science and Microbiology, University of Hamburg, Ohnhorststr.18, 22609, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Wolfgang R Streit
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Biocenter Klein Flottbek, Institute of Plant Science and Microbiology, University of Hamburg, Ohnhorststr.18, 22609, Hamburg, Germany
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3
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Jiménez-Pérez C, Guzmán-Rodríguez F, Cruz-Guerrero AE, Alatorre-Santamaría S. The dual role of fucosidases: tool or target. Biologia (Bratisl) 2023; 78:1-16. [PMID: 37363646 PMCID: PMC9972328 DOI: 10.1007/s11756-023-01351-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
Regular intake of fucosylated oligosaccharides has been associated with several benefits for human health, particularly for new-borns. Since these biologically active molecules can be found naturally in human milk, research efforts have been focused on the alternative synthetic routes leading to their production. In particular, utilization of fucosidases to perform stereoselective transglycosylation reactions has been widely investigated. Other reasons that bring these enzymes to the spotlight are their role in viral infections and cancer proliferation. Since their involvement in the pathogenesis of these diseases have been widely described, fucosidases have become a target in newly developed therapies. Finally, activity disorders of biologically important fucosidases can lead to health problems such as fucosidosis. What is common for both mechanisms is the interaction between the enzyme and substrates in and around the active site. Therefore, this review will analyse different substrate structures that have been tested in terms of their interaction with fucosidases active sites, either in synthesis or inhibition reactions. The published results will be compared from this perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Jiménez-Pérez
- Dpto. de Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Unidad Iztapalapa, C.P. 09340 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Francisco Guzmán-Rodríguez
- Dpto. de Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Unidad Iztapalapa, C.P. 09340 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alma E. Cruz-Guerrero
- Dpto. de Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Unidad Iztapalapa, C.P. 09340 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Sergio Alatorre-Santamaría
- Dpto. de Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Unidad Iztapalapa, C.P. 09340 Mexico City, Mexico
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4
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Mechanistic insight into the synthesis of fucooligosaccharides by α-L-fucosidase from Thermotoga maritima belonging to the GH29 family: in silico study. Biologia (Bratisl) 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11756-022-01296-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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5
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Shishiuchi R, Kang H, Tagami T, Ueda Y, Lang W, Kimura A, Okuyama M. Discovery of α-l-Glucosidase Raises the Possibility of α-l-Glucosides in Nature. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:47411-47423. [PMID: 36570207 PMCID: PMC9774334 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c06991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Glucose, a common monosaccharide in nature, is dominated by the d-enantiomer. Meanwhile, the discovery of l-glucose-utilizing bacteria and the elucidation of their metabolic pathways 10 years ago suggests that l-glucose exists naturally. Most carbohydrates exist as glycosides rather than monosaccharides; therefore, we expected that nature also contains l-glucosides. Sequence analysis within glycoside hydrolase family 29 led us to identify two α-l-glucosidases, ClAgl29A and ClAgl29B, derived from Cecembia lonarensis LW9. ClAgl29A and ClAgl29B exhibited higher K m, k cat, and k cat/K m values for p-nitrophenyl α-l-glucoside than that for p-nitrophenyl α-l-fucoside. Structural analysis of ClAgl29B in complex with l-glucose showed that these enzymes have an active-site pocket that preferentially binds α-l-glucoside, but excludes α-l-fucoside. These results suggest that ClAgl29A and ClAgl29B evolved to hydrolyze α-l-glucoside, implying the existence of α-l-glucoside in nature. Furthermore, α-l-glucosidic linkages (α-l-Glc-(1 → 3)-l-Glc, α-l-Glc-(1 → 2)-l-Glc, and α-l-Glc-(1 → 6)-l-Glc) were synthesized by the transglucosylation activity of ClAgl29A and ClAgl29B. We believe that this study will lead to new research on α-l-glucosides, including determining the physiological effects on humans, and the discovery of novel α-l-glucoside-related enzymes.
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6
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Hong H, Kim DH, Seo H, Kim KH, Kim KJ. Dual α-1,4- and β-1,4-Glycosidase Activities by the Novel Carbohydrate-Binding Module in α-l-Fucosidase from Vibrio sp. Strain EJY3. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:3380-3389. [PMID: 33705122 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c08199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Carbohydrates are structurally and functionally diverse materials including polysaccharides, and marine organisms are known to have many enzymes for the breakdown of complex polysaccharides. Here, we identified an α-l-fucosidase enzyme from the marine bacterium Vibrio sp. strain EJY3 (VejFCD) that has dual α-1,4-glucosidic and β-1,4-galactosidic specificities. We determined the crystal structure of VejFCD and provided the structural basis underlying the dual α- and β-glycosidase activities of the enzyme. Unlike other three-domain FCDs, in VejFCD, carbohydrate-binding module-B (CBM-B) with a novel β-sandwich fold tightly contacts with the CatD/CBM-B main body and provides key residues for the β-1,4-glycosidase activity of the enzyme. The phylogenetic tree analysis suggests that only a few FCDs from marine microorganisms have the key structural features for dual α-1,4- and β-1,4-glycosidase activities. This study provides the structural insights into the mechanism underlying the novel glycoside hydrolase activities and could be applied for more efficient utilization in the hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates in biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hwaseok Hong
- School of Life Sciences, KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daehak-ro 80, Buk-ku, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
- KNU Institute of Microbiology, Kyungpook National University, Daehak-ro 80, Buk-ku, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Do Hyoung Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Graduate School, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Hogyun Seo
- School of Life Sciences, KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daehak-ro 80, Buk-ku, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
- Pohang Accelerator Laboratory, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoung Heon Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Graduate School, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung-Jin Kim
- School of Life Sciences, KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daehak-ro 80, Buk-ku, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
- KNU Institute of Microbiology, Kyungpook National University, Daehak-ro 80, Buk-ku, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea
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7
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Klontz EH, Li C, Kihn K, Fields JK, Beckett D, Snyder GA, Wintrode PL, Deredge D, Wang LX, Sundberg EJ. Structure and dynamics of an α-fucosidase reveal a mechanism for highly efficient IgG transfucosylation. Nat Commun 2020; 11:6204. [PMID: 33277506 PMCID: PMC7718225 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20044-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Fucosylation is important for the function of many proteins with biotechnical and medical applications. Alpha-fucosidases comprise a large enzyme family that recognizes fucosylated substrates with diverse α-linkages on these proteins. Lactobacillus casei produces an α-fucosidase, called AlfC, with specificity towards α(1,6)-fucose, the only linkage found in human N-glycan core fucosylation. AlfC and certain point mutants thereof have been used to add and remove fucose from monoclonal antibody N-glycans, with significant impacts on their effector functions. Despite the potential uses for AlfC, little is known about its mechanism. Here, we present crystal structures of AlfC, combined with mutational and kinetic analyses, hydrogen–deuterium exchange mass spectrometry, molecular dynamic simulations, and transfucosylation experiments to define the molecular mechanisms of the activities of AlfC and its transfucosidase mutants. Our results indicate that AlfC creates an aromatic subsite adjacent to the active site that specifically accommodates GlcNAc in α(1,6)-linkages, suggest that enzymatic activity is controlled by distinct open and closed conformations of an active-site loop, with certain mutations shifting the equilibrium towards open conformations to promote transfucosylation over hydrolysis, and provide a potentially generalizable framework for the rational creation of AlfC transfucosidase mutants. AlfC transfucosidase is used to modulate fucosylation of glycans decorating monoclonal antibodies. Herein, structural and biophysical characterization reveals the enzymatic mechanism of AlfC and a blueprint for the design of AlfC mutants with novel specificities and functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik H Klontz
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.,Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.,Program in Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Chao Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Kyle Kihn
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, College Park, MD, 21201, USA
| | - James K Fields
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.,Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.,Program in Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Dorothy Beckett
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Greg A Snyder
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Patrick L Wintrode
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, College Park, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Daniel Deredge
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, College Park, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Lai-Xi Wang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Eric J Sundberg
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA. .,Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA. .,Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA. .,Department of Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
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8
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Grootaert H, Van Landuyt L, Hulpiau P, Callewaert N. Functional exploration of the GH29 fucosidase family. Glycobiology 2020; 30:735-745. [PMID: 32149359 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwaa023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The deoxy sugar l-fucose is frequently found as a glycan constituent on and outside living cells, and in mammals it is involved in a wide range of biological processes including leukocyte trafficking, histo-blood group antigenicity and antibody effector functions. The manipulation of fucose levels in those biomedically important systems may provide novel insights and therapeutic leads. However, despite the large established sequence diversity of natural fucosidases, so far, very few enzymes have been characterized. We explored the diversity of the α-l-fucosidase-containing CAZY family GH29 by bio-informatic analysis, and by the recombinant production and exploration for fucosidase activity of a subset of 82 protein sequences that represent the family's large sequence diversity. After establishing that most of the corresponding proteins can be readily expressed in E. coli, more than half of the obtained recombinant proteins (57% of the entire subset) showed activity towards the simple chromogenic fucosylated substrate 4-nitrophenyl α-l-fucopyranoside. Thirty-seven of these active GH29 enzymes (and the GH29 subtaxa that they represent) had not been characterized before. With such a sequence diversity-based collection available, it can easily be used to screen for fucosidase activity towards biomedically relevant fucosylated glycoproteins. As an example, the subset was used to screen GH29 members for activity towards the naturally occurring sialyl-Lewis x-type epitope on glycoproteins, and several such enzymes were identified. Together, the results provide a significant increase in the diversity of characterized GH29 enzymes, and the recombinant enzymes constitute a resource for the further functional exploration of this enzyme family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Grootaert
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Zwijnaarde, Technologiepark 71, 9052 Ghent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium.,Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Technologiepark 71, 9052 Ghent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium
| | - Linde Van Landuyt
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Zwijnaarde, Technologiepark 71, 9052 Ghent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium.,Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Technologiepark 71, 9052 Ghent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium
| | - Paco Hulpiau
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Zwijnaarde, Technologiepark 71, 9052 Ghent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium
| | - Nico Callewaert
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, Zwijnaarde, Technologiepark 71, 9052 Ghent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium.,Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Technologiepark 71, 9052 Ghent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium
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9
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Thøgersen MS, Christensen SJ, Jepsen M, Pedersen LH, Stougaard P. Transglycosylating β-d-galactosidase and α-l-fucosidase from Paenibacillus sp. 3179 from a hot spring in East Greenland. Microbiologyopen 2020; 9:e980. [PMID: 31868312 PMCID: PMC7066462 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Thermal springs are excellent locations for discovery of thermostable microorganisms and enzymes. In this study, we identify a novel thermotolerant bacterial strain related to Paenibacillus dendritiformis, denoted Paenibacillus sp. 3179, which was isolated from a thermal spring in East Greenland. A functional expression library of the strain was constructed, and the library screened for β-d-galactosidase and α-l-fucosidase activities on chromogenic substrates. This identified two genes encoding a β-d-galactosidase and an α-l-fucosidase, respectively. The enzymes were recombinantly expressed, purified, and characterized using oNPG (2-nitrophenyl-β-d-galactopyranoside) and pNP-fucose (4-nitrophenyl-α-l-fucopyranoside), respectively. The enzymes were shown to have optimal activity at 50°C and pH 7-8, and they were able to hydrolyze as well as transglycosylate natural carbohydrates. The transglycosylation activities were investigated using TLC and HPLC, and the β-d-galactosidase was shown to produce the galactooligosaccharides (GOS) 6'-O-galactosyllactose and 3'-O-galactosyllactose using lactose as substrate, whereas the α-l-fucosidase was able to transfer the fucose moiety from pNP-fuc to lactose, thereby forming 2'-O-fucosyllactose. Since enzymes that are able to transglycosylate carbohydrates at elevated temperature are desirable in many industrial processes, including food and dairy production, we foresee the potential use of enzymes from Paenibacillus sp. 3179 in the production of, for example, instant formula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariane S. Thøgersen
- University of CopenhagenFrederiksberg CDenmark
- Present address:
Aarhus UniversityRoskildeDenmark
| | - Stefan J. Christensen
- University of CopenhagenFrederiksberg CDenmark
- Present address:
Roskilde UniversityRoskildeDenmark
| | - Morten Jepsen
- University of CopenhagenFrederiksberg CDenmark
- Present address:
Novo Nordisk A/SBagsværdDenmark
| | | | - Peter Stougaard
- University of CopenhagenFrederiksberg CDenmark
- Present address:
Aarhus UniversityRoskildeDenmark
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