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Croft B, Bird AD, Ono M, Eggers S, Bagheri‐Fam S, Ryan JM, Reyes AP, van den Bergen J, Baxendale A, Thompson EM, Kueh AJ, Stanton P, Thomas T, Sinclair AH, Harley VR. FGF9 variant in 46,XY DSD patient suggests a role for dimerization in sex determination. Clin Genet 2023; 103:277-287. [PMID: 36349847 PMCID: PMC10952601 DOI: 10.1111/cge.14261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
46,XY gonadal dysgenesis (GD) is a Disorder/Difference of Sex Development (DSD) that can present with phenotypes ranging from ambiguous genitalia to complete male-to-female sex reversal. Around 50% of 46,XY DSD cases receive a molecular diagnosis. In mice, Fibroblast growth factor 9 (FGF9) is an important component of the male sex-determining pathway. Two FGF9 variants reported to date disrupt testis development in mice, but not in humans. Here, we describe a female patient with 46,XY GD harbouring the rare FGF9 variant (missense mutation), NM_002010.2:c.583G > A;p.(Asp195Asn) (D195N). By biochemical and cell-based approaches, the D195N variant disrupts FGF9 protein homodimerisation and FGF9-heparin-binding, and reduces both Sertoli cell proliferation and Wnt4 repression. XY Fgf9D195N/D195N foetal mice show a transient disruption of testicular cord development, while XY Fgf9D195N/- foetal mice show partial male-to-female gonadal sex reversal. In the general population, the D195N variant occurs at an allele frequency of 2.4 × 10-5 , suggesting an oligogenic basis for the patient's DSD. Exome analysis of the patient reveals several known and novel variants in genes expressed in human foetal Sertoli cells at the time of sex determination. Taken together, our results indicate that disruption of FGF9 homodimerization impairs testis determination in mice and, potentially, also in humans in combination with other variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany Croft
- Hudson Institute of Medical ResearchMonash Medical CentreMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Molecular & Translational ScienceMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Murdoch Children's Research InstituteMelbourneAustralia
| | - Anthony D. Bird
- Hudson Institute of Medical ResearchMonash Medical CentreMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Molecular & Translational ScienceMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Makoto Ono
- Hudson Institute of Medical ResearchMonash Medical CentreMelbourneAustralia
- Department of PaediatricsChiba Kaihin Municipal HospitalChibaJapan
- Present address:
Department of PediatricsChiba Kaihin Municipal HospitalChibaJapan
| | | | - Stefan Bagheri‐Fam
- Hudson Institute of Medical ResearchMonash Medical CentreMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Molecular & Translational ScienceMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Janelle M. Ryan
- Hudson Institute of Medical ResearchMonash Medical CentreMelbourneAustralia
| | - Alejandra P. Reyes
- Hudson Institute of Medical ResearchMonash Medical CentreMelbourneAustralia
| | | | - Anne Baxendale
- Department of PaediatricsChiba Kaihin Municipal HospitalChibaJapan
- SA Clinical Genetics ServiceWomen's and Children's HospitalAdelaideAustralia
| | - Elizabeth M. Thompson
- SA Clinical Genetics ServiceWomen's and Children's HospitalAdelaideAustralia
- Adelaide Medical School, Faculty of Health SciencesUniversity of AdelaideAdelaideAustralia
| | - Andrew J. Kueh
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, ParkvilleMelbourneAustralia
| | - Peter Stanton
- Hudson Institute of Medical ResearchMonash Medical CentreMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Molecular & Translational ScienceMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Tim Thomas
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, ParkvilleMelbourneAustralia
| | - Andrew H. Sinclair
- Murdoch Children's Research InstituteMelbourneAustralia
- Department of PaediatricsUniversity of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
| | - Vincent R. Harley
- Department of Molecular & Translational ScienceMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
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Fetal germ cell development in humans, a link with infertility. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2022; 131:58-65. [PMID: 35431137 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.03.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Gametes are cells that have the unique ability to give rise to new individuals as well as transmit (epi)genetic information across generations. Generation of functionally competent gametes, oocytes and sperm cells, depends to some extent on several fundamental processes that occur during fetal development. Direct studies on human fetal germ cells remain hindered by ethical considerations and inaccessibility to human fetal material. Therefore, the majority of our current knowledge of germ cell development still comes from an invaluable body of research performed using different mammalian species. During the last decade, our understanding of human fetal germ cells has increased due to the successful use of human pluripotent stem cells to model aspects of human early gametogenesis and advancements on single-cell omics. Together, this has contributed to determine the cell types and associated molecular signatures in the developing human gonads. In this review, we will put in perspective the knowledge obtained from several mammalian models (mouse, monkey, pig). Moreover, we will discuss the main events during human fetal (female) early gametogenesis and how the dysregulation of this highly complex and lengthy process can link to infertility later in life.
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Syryn H, Van De Vijver K, Cools M. Ovotesticular Difference of Sex Development: Genetic Background, Histological Features, and Clinical Management. Horm Res Paediatr 2021; 96:180-189. [PMID: 34469891 DOI: 10.1159/000519323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ovotesticular disorder/difference of sex development (DSD) refers to the co-presence of testicular and ovarian tissue in one individual. Childhood management is challenging as there are many uncertainties regarding etiology, gonadal function, and gender outcome. SUMMARY Ovotesticular DSD should mainly be considered in 46,XX children with atypical genitalia and normal adrenal steroid profiles. Various underlying genetic mechanisms have been described. Histological assessment of ovotestes requires expert revision and has many pitfalls. Neonatal sex assignment is essential, but as gender outcome is unpredictable, this should be regarded as provisional until a stable gender identity has developed. Therefore, it is crucial not to perform any irreversible medical or surgical procedure in affected individuals until adolescents can give their full informed consent. Gonadal function mostly allows for spontaneous pubertal development; however, fertility is compromised, especially in boys. Specific long-term outcome data for ovotesticular DSD are lacking but can be extrapolated from studies in other DSD populations. Key Messages: Management of ovotesticular DSD has changed in recent years, prioritizing the child's future right for autonomy and self-determination. The benefits and pitfalls of this new approach have not been documented yet and require intensive monitoring on an international scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Syryn
- Center for Medical Genetics, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Martine Cools
- Department of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics, Ghent University and Pediatric Endocrinology Service, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
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Li R, Sun Y, Chen Z, Zheng M, Shan Y, Ying X, Weng M, Chen Z. The Fibroblast Growth Factor 9 (Fgf9) Participates in Palatogenesis by Promoting Palatal Growth and Elevation. Front Physiol 2021; 12:653040. [PMID: 33959039 PMCID: PMC8093392 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.653040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cleft palate, a common global congenital malformation, occurs due to disturbances in palatal growth, elevation, contact, and fusion during palatogenesis. The Fibroblast growth factor 9 (FGF9) mutation has been discovered in humans with cleft lip and palate. Fgf9 is expressed in both the epithelium and mesenchyme, with temporospatial diversity during palatogenesis. However, the specific role of Fgf9 in palatogenesis has not been extensively discussed. Herein, we used Ddx4-Cre mice to generate an Fgf9–/– mouse model (with an Fgf9 exon 2 deletion) that exhibited a craniofacial syndrome involving a cleft palate and deficient mandibular size with 100% penetrance. A smaller palatal shelf size, delayed palatal elevation, and contact failure were investigated to be the intrinsic causes for cleft palate. Hyaluronic acid accumulation in the extracellular matrix (ECM) sharply decreased, while the cell density correspondingly increased in Fgf9–/– mice. Additionally, significant decreases in cell proliferation were discovered in not only the palatal epithelium and mesenchyme but also among cells in Meckel’s cartilage and around the mandibular bone in Fgf9–/– mice. Serial sections of embryonic heads dissected at embryonic day 14.5 (E14.5) were subjected to craniofacial morphometric measurement. This highlighted the reduced oral volume owing to abnormal tongue size and descent, and insufficient mandibular size, which disturbed palatal elevation in Fgf9–/– mice. These results indicate that Fgf9 facilitates palatal growth and timely elevation by regulating cell proliferation and hyaluronic acid accumulation. Moreover, Fgf9 ensures that the palatal elevation process has adequate space by influencing tongue descent, tongue morphology, and mandibular growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruomei Li
- Department of Orthodontics, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yidan Sun
- Department of Orthodontics, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhengxi Chen
- Department of Orthodontics, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Resident, Department of General Dentistry, Henry M. Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Mengting Zheng
- Department of Orthodontics, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuhua Shan
- Department of Orthodontics, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiyu Ying
- Department of Orthodontics, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mengjia Weng
- Department of Orthodontics, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhenqi Chen
- Department of Orthodontics, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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Tang L, Wu M, Lu S, Zhang H, Shen Y, Shen C, Liang H, Ge H, Ding X, Wang Z. Fgf9 Negatively Regulates Bone Mass by Inhibiting Osteogenesis and Promoting Osteoclastogenesis Via MAPK and PI3K/AKT Signaling. J Bone Miner Res 2021; 36:779-791. [PMID: 33316109 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.4230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor 9 (Fgf9) is a well-known factor that regulates bone development; however, its function in bone homeostasis is still unknown. Previously, we identified a point mutation in the FGF9 gene (p.Ser99Asn, S99N) and generated an isogeneic knock-in mouse model, which revealed that this loss-of-function mutation impaired early joint formation and was responsible for human multiple synostosis syndrome 3 (SYNS3). Moreover, newborn and adult S99N mutant mice exhibited significantly increased bone mass, suggesting that Fgf9 also participated in bone homeostasis. Histomorphology, tomography, and serological analysis of homozygous newborns and heterozygous adults showed that the Fgf9S99N mutation immensely increased bone mass and bone formation in perinatal and adult bones and decreased osteoclastogenesis in adult bone. An in vitro differentiation assay further revealed that the S99N mutation enhanced bone formation by promoting osteogenesis and mineralization of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) and attenuating osteoclastogenesis of bone marrow monocytes (BMMs). Considering the loss-of-function effect of the S99N mutation, we hypothesized that Fgf9 itself inhibits osteogenesis and promotes osteoclastogenesis. An in vitro differentiation assay revealed that Fgf9 prominently inhibited BMSC osteogenic differentiation and mineralization and showed for the first time that Fgf9 promoted osteoclastogenesis by enhancing preosteoclast aggregation and cell-cell fusion. Furthermore, specific inhibitors and in vitro differentiation assays were used and showed that Fgf9 inhibited BMSC osteogenesis mainly via the MEK/ERK pathway and partially via the PI3K/AKT pathway. Fgf9 also promoted osteoclastogenesis as a potential costimulatory factor with macrophage colony-stimating factor (M-CSF) and receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) by coactivating the MAPK and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways. Taken together, our study demonstrated that Fgf9 is a negative regulator of bone homeostasis by regulating osteogenesis and osteoclastogenesis and provides a potential therapeutic target for bone degenerative diseases. © 2020 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingyun Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Research Center for Experimental Medicine, Rui-Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine (SJTUSM), Shanghai, China
| | - Min Wu
- Shanghai Institute of Hematology, Research Center for Experimental Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, National Research Center for Translational Medicine at Shanghai, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to SJTUSM, Shanghai, China
| | - Shunyuan Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Research Center for Experimental Medicine, Rui-Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine (SJTUSM), Shanghai, China
| | - Hongxin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Research Center for Experimental Medicine, Rui-Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine (SJTUSM), Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Research Center for Experimental Medicine, Rui-Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine (SJTUSM), Shanghai, China
| | - Chunling Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Research Center for Experimental Medicine, Rui-Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine (SJTUSM), Shanghai, China
| | - Hui Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Research Center for Experimental Medicine, Rui-Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine (SJTUSM), Shanghai, China
| | - Haoyang Ge
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Research Center for Experimental Medicine, Rui-Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine (SJTUSM), Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoyi Ding
- Department of Radiology, Rui-Jin Hospital Affiliated to SJTUSM, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhugang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Research Center for Experimental Medicine, Rui-Jin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine (SJTUSM), Shanghai, China
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Thuresson AC, Croft B, Hailer YD, Liminga G, Arvidsson CG, Harley VR, Stattin EL. A novel heterozygous variant in FGF9 associated with previously unreported features of multiple synostosis syndrome 3. Clin Genet 2021; 99:325-329. [PMID: 33174625 PMCID: PMC7839447 DOI: 10.1111/cge.13880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Human multiple synostoses syndrome 3 is an autosomal dominant disorder caused by pathogenic variants in FGF9. Only two variants have been described in FGF9 in humans so far, and one in mice. Here we report a novel missense variant c.566C > G, p.(Pro189Arg) in FGF9. Functional studies showed this variant impairs FGF9 homodimerization, but not FGFR3c binding. We also review the findings of cases reported previously and report on additional features not described previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Charlotte Thuresson
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory Uppsala, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Brittany Croft
- Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Monash Medical Centre, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Molecular and Translational Science, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Yasmin D Hailer
- Section of Orthopaedics, Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Gunnar Liminga
- Department of Women and Children's Health, Paediatric Neurology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Vincent R Harley
- Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Monash Medical Centre, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Eva-Lena Stattin
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory Uppsala, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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