Modeling the monosomy for the telomeric part of human chromosome 21 reveals haploinsufficient genes modulating the inflammatory and airway responses

Rodent models in Down syndrome research: impact and future opportunities

Down syndrome is caused by trisomy of chromosome 21. To date, a multiplicity of mouse models with Down-syndrome-related features has been developed to understand this complex human chromosomal disorder. These mouse models have been important for determining genotype-phenotype relationships and identification of dosage-sensitive genes involved in the pathophysiology of the condition, and in exploring the impact of the additional chromosome on the whole genome. Mouse models of Down syndrome have also been used to test therapeutic strategies. Here, we provide an overview of research in the last 15 years dedicated to the development and application of rodent models for Down syndrome. We also speculate on possible and probable future directions of research in this fast-moving field. As our understanding of the syndrome improves and genome engineering technologies evolve, it is necessary to coordinate efforts to make all Down syndrome models available to the community, to test therapeutics in models that replicate the whole trisomy and design new animal models to promote further discovery of potential therapeutic targets.

Summary: Mouse models have boosted therapeutic options for Down syndrome, and improved models are being developed to better understand the pathophysiology of this genetic condition.

PRMT2β, a C-terminal splice variant of PRMT2, inhibits the growth of breast cancer cells

Our previous study reported several alternative splicing variants of arginine N-methyltransferase 2 (PRMT2), which lose different exons in the C-terminals of the wild-type PRMT2 gene. Particularly, due to frame-shifting, PRMT2β encodes a novel amino acid sequence at the C-terminus of the protein, the function of which is not understood. In the present study, we determined the role of PRMT2β in breast cancer cell proliferation, apoptosis and its effect on the Akt signaling pathway. Stable breast cancer MCF7 cell line with lentivirus-mediated PRMT2β overexpression was obtained after selection by puromycin for 2 weeks. The effect of lentivirus-mediated PRMT2β overexpression on breast cancer cellular oncogenic properties was evaluated by MTT, colony formation, cell cycle analysis and apoptosis assays in MCF7 cells. Luciferase activity assay and western blot analysis were performed to characterize the effects of PRMT2β on cyclin D1 promoter activities and the Akt signaling pathway. Tissue microarray was performed to investigate the association of PRMT2β with breast cancer progression. Lentivirus-mediated PRMT2β overexpression suppressed the cell proliferation and colony formation of breast cancer MCF7 cells. PRMT2β overexpression induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of MCF7 cells. Furthermore, PRMT2β was revealed to suppress the transcription activity of the cyclin D1 promoter, and PRMT2β was also found to inhibit cyclin D1 expression via the suppression of Akt/GSK-3β signaling in breast cancer cells. Clinically, it was revealed that PRMT2β expression was negatively correlated with human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) (p=0.033) in breast tumors. Our results revealed that PRMT2β, a novel splice variant of PRMT2, plays potential antitumor effect by suppressing cyclin D1 expression and inhibiting Akt signaling activity. This also opens a new avenue for treating breast cancer.

Mouse-based genetic modeling and analysis of Down syndrome

INTRODUCTION

Down syndrome (DS), caused by human trisomy 21 (Ts21), can be considered as a prototypical model for understanding the effects of chromosomal aneuploidies in other diseases. Human chromosome 21 (Hsa21) is syntenically conserved with three regions in the mouse genome.

SOURCES OF DATA

A review of recent advances in genetic modeling and analysis of DS. Using Cre/loxP-mediated chromosome engineering, a substantial number of new mouse models of DS have recently been generated, which facilitates better understanding of disease mechanisms in DS.

AREAS OF AGREEMENT

Based on evolutionary conservation, Ts21 can be modeled by engineered triplication of Hsa21 syntenic regions in mice. The validity of the models is supported by the exhibition of DS-related phenotypes.

AREAS OF CONTROVERSY

Although substantial progress has been made, it remains a challenge to unravel the relative importance of specific candidate genes and molecular mechanisms underlying the various clinical phenotypes.

GROWING POINTS

Further understanding of mechanisms based on data from mouse models, in parallel with human studies, may lead to novel therapies for clinical manifestations of Ts21 and insights to the roles of aneuploidies in other developmental disorders and cancers.

Deletion of the App-Runx1 region in mice models human partial monosomy 21

Partial monosomy 21 (PM21) is a rare chromosomal abnormality that is characterized by the loss of a variable segment along human chromosome 21 (Hsa21). The clinical phenotypes of this loss are heterogeneous and range from mild alterations to lethal consequences, depending on the affected region of Hsa21. The most common features include intellectual disabilities, craniofacial dysmorphology, short stature, and muscular and cardiac defects. As a complement to human genetic approaches, our team has developed new monosomic mouse models that carry deletions on Hsa21 syntenic regions in order to identify the dosage-sensitive genes that are responsible for the symptoms. We focus here on the Ms5Yah mouse model, in which a 7.7-Mb region has been deleted from the App to Runx1 genes. Ms5Yah mice display high postnatal lethality, with a few surviving individuals showing growth retardation, motor coordination deficits, and spatial learning and memory impairments. Further studies confirmed a gene dosage effect in the Ms5Yah hippocampus, and pinpointed disruptions of pathways related to cell adhesion (involving App, Cntnap5b, Lgals3bp, Mag, Mcam, Npnt, Pcdhb2, Pcdhb3, Pcdhb4, Pcdhb6, Pcdhb7, Pcdhb8, Pcdhb16 and Vwf). Our PM21 mouse model is the first to display morphological abnormalities and behavioural phenotypes similar to those found in affected humans, and it therefore demonstrates the major contribution that the App-Runx1 region has in the pathophysiology of PM21.

Summary: The Del(16App-Runx1)5Yah mouse model displays morphological abnormalities and behavioural phenotypes similar to those found in humans with partial monosomy 21, and it therefore demonstrates the major contribution of the App-Runx1 region to the pathophysiology of partial monosomy 21.

Cognition and hippocampal plasticity in the mouse is altered by monosomy of a genomic region implicated in Down syndrome

Down syndrome (DS) is due to increased copy number of human chromosome 21. The contribution of different genetic regions has been tested using mouse models. As shown previously, the Abcg1-U2af1 genetic region contributes to cognitive defects in working and short-term recognition memory in Down syndrome mouse models. Here we analyzed the impact of monosomy of the same genetic interval, using a new mouse model, named Ms2Yah. We used several cognitive paradigms and did not detect defects in the object recognition or the Morris water maze tests. However, surprisingly, Ms2Yah mice displayed increased associative memory in a pure contextual fear-conditioning test and decreased social novelty interaction along with a larger long-term potentiation recorded in the CA1 area following stimulation of Schaffer collaterals. Whole-genome expression studies carried out on hippocampus showed that the transcription of only a small number of genes is affected, mainly from the genetic interval (Cbs, Rsph1, Wdr4), with a few additional ones, including the postsynaptic Gabrr2, Gabbr1, Grid2p, Park2, and Dlg1 and the components of the Ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis (Anapc1, Rnf7, Huwe1, Park2). The Abcg1–U2af1 region is undeniably encompassing dosage-sensitive genes or elements whose change in copy number directly affects learning and memory, synaptic function, and autistic related behavior.

Transcriptional effects of gene dose reduction

Large-scale gene dose reductions usually lead to abnormal phenotypes or death. However, male mammals, Drosophila, and Caenorhabditis elegans have only one X chromosome and thus can be considered as monosomic for a major chromosome. Despite the deleterious effects brought about by such gene dose reduction in the case of an autosome, X chromosome monosomy in males is natural and innocuous. This is because of the nearly full transcriptional compensation for X chromosome genes in males, as opposed to no or partial transcriptional compensation for autosomal one-dose genes arising due to deletions. Buffering, the passive absorption of disturbance due to enzyme kinetics, and feedback responses triggered by expression change contribute to partial compensation. Feed-forward mechanisms, which are active responses to genes being located on the X, rather than actual gene dose are important contributors to full X chromosome compensation. In the last decade, high-throughput techniques have provided us with the tools to effectively and quantitatively measure the small-fold transcriptional effects of dose reduction. This is leading to a better understanding of compensatory mechanisms.

Massively parallel sequencing reveals the complex structure of an irradiated human chromosome on a mouse background in the Tc1 model of Down syndrome

Down syndrome (DS) is caused by trisomy of chromosome 21 (Hsa21) and presents a complex phenotype that arises from abnormal dosage of genes on this chromosome. However, the individual dosage-sensitive genes underlying each phenotype remain largely unknown. To help dissect genotype – phenotype correlations in this complex syndrome, the first fully transchromosomic mouse model, the Tc1 mouse, which carries a copy of human chromosome 21 was produced in 2005. The Tc1 strain is trisomic for the majority of genes that cause phenotypes associated with DS, and this freely available mouse strain has become used widely to study DS, the effects of gene dosage abnormalities, and the effect on the basic biology of cells when a mouse carries a freely segregating human chromosome. Tc1 mice were created by a process that included irradiation microcell-mediated chromosome transfer of Hsa21 into recipient mouse embryonic stem cells. Here, the combination of next generation sequencing, array-CGH and fluorescence in situ hybridization technologies has enabled us to identify unsuspected rearrangements of Hsa21 in this mouse model; revealing one deletion, six duplications and more than 25 de novo structural rearrangements. Our study is not only essential for informing functional studies of the Tc1 mouse but also (1) presents for the first time a detailed sequence analysis of the effects of gamma radiation on an entire human chromosome, which gives some mechanistic insight into the effects of radiation damage on DNA, and (2) overcomes specific technical difficulties of assaying a human chromosome on a mouse background where highly conserved sequences may confound the analysis. Sequence data generated in this study is deposited in the ENA database, Study Accession number: ERP000439.

The in vivo Down syndrome genomic library in mouse

Mouse models are key elements to better understand the genotype-phenotype relationship and the physiopathology of Down syndrome (DS). Even though the mouse will never recapitulate the whole spectrum of intellectual disabilities observed in the DS, mouse models have been developed over the recent decades and have been used extensively to identify homologous genes or entire regions homologous to the human chromosome 21 (Hsa21) that are necessary or sufficient to induce DS cognitive features. In this chapter, we review the principal mouse DS models which have been selected and engineered over the years either for large genomic regions or for a few or a single gene of interest. Their analyses highlight the complexity of the genetic interactions that are involved in DS cognitive phenotypes and also strengthen the hypothesis on the multigenic nature of DS. This review also addresses future research challenges relative to the making of new models and their combination to go further in the characterization of candidates and modifier of the DS features.

Modeling partial monosomy for human chromosome 21q11.2-q21.1 reveals haploinsufficient genes influencing behavior and fat deposition

Haploinsufficiency of part of human chromosome 21 results in a rare condition known as Monosomy 21. This disease displays a variety of clinical phenotypes, including intellectual disability, craniofacial dysmorphology, skeletal and cardiac abnormalities, and respiratory complications. To search for dosage-sensitive genes involved in this disorder, we used chromosome engineering to generate a mouse model carrying a deletion of the Lipi-Usp25 interval, syntenic with 21q11.2-q21.1 in humans. Haploinsufficiency for the 6 genes in this interval resulted in no gross morphological defects and behavioral analysis performed using an open field test, a test of anxiety, and tests for social interaction were normal in monosomic mice. Monosomic mice did, however, display impaired memory retention compared to control animals. Moreover, when fed a high-fat diet (HFD) monosomic mice exhibited a significant increase in fat mass/fat percentage estimate compared with controls, severe fatty changes in their livers, and thickened subcutaneous fat. Thus, genes within the Lipi-Usp25 interval may participate in memory retention and in the regulation of fat deposition.

Mouse models of aneuploidy

Abnormalities of chromosome copy number are called aneuploidies and make up a large health load on the human population. Many aneuploidies are lethal because the resulting abnormal gene dosage is highly deleterious. Nevertheless, some whole chromosome aneuploidies can lead to live births. Alterations in the copy number of sections of chromosomes, which are also known as segmental aneuploidies, are also associated with deleterious effects. Here we examine how aneuploidy of whole chromosomes and segmental aneuploidy of chromosomal regions are modeled in the mouse. These models provide a whole animal system in which we aim to investigate the complex phenotype-genotype interactions that arise from alteration in the copy number of genes. Although our understanding of this subject is still in its infancy, already research in mouse models is highlighting possible therapies that might help alleviate the cognitive effects associated with changes in gene number. Thus, creating and studying mouse models of aneuploidy and copy number variation is important for understanding what it is to be human, in both the normal and genomically altered states.

Identification and characterization of novel spliced variants of PRMT2 in breast carcinoma

Protein N-arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs) participate in a number of cellular processes, including cell growth, nuclear/cytoplasmic protein shuttling, differentiation, RNA splicing and post-transcriptional regulation. PRMT2 (also known as HRMT1L1) is clearly involved in lung function, the inflammatory response, apoptosis promotion, Wnt signaling and leptin signaling regulation through different mechanisms. In this study, we report the molecular and cell biological characterization of three novel PRMT2 splice variants isolated from breast cancer cells and referred to as PRMT2α, PRMT2β and PRMT2γ. Compared with the wild-type PRMT2, these variants lack different motifs and therefore generate distinct C-terminal domains. Confocal microscopy scanning revealed a distinct intracellular localization of PRMT2 variants, suggesting that the alternatively spliced C-terminus of PRMT2 can directly influence its subcellular localization. Our findings reveal that these variants are capable of binding to estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) both in vitro and in vivo, and the N-terminal regions of these variants contribute to ERα-PRMT2 interactions. Furthermore, these variants were proved to be able to enhance ERα-mediated transactivation activity. Luciferase reporter assays showed that PRMT2s could modulate promoter activities of the ERα-targeted genes of Snail and E-cadherin. In addition, PRMT2 silencing could enhance 17β-estradiol-induced proliferation by regulating E2F1 expression and E2F1-responsive genes in ERα-positive breast cancer cells. Real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry showed that overall PRMT2 expression was upregulated in breast cancer tissues and significantly associated with ERα positivity status both in breast cancer cell lines and breast cancer tissues. We speculate that PRMT2 and its splice variants may directly modulate ERα signaling and play a role in the progression of breast cancer.

PCP4 (PEP19) overexpression induces premature neuronal differentiation associated with Ca(2+) /calmodulin-dependent kinase II-δ activation in mouse models of Down syndrome

Pcp4/pep19 is a modulator of Ca(2+) -CaM, a key molecule for calcium signaling, expressed in postmitotic neuroectoderm cells during mouse embryogenesis. The PCP4 gene is located on human chromosome 21 and is present in three copies in Down syndrome (DS). To evaluate the consequences of three copies of this gene on the development of these cells in the nervous system, we constructed a transgenic (TgPCP4) mouse model, with one copy of human PCP4, and investigated the effects in this model and in the Ts1Cje, a mouse model of DS. During embryogenesis, we analyzed 1) the level of pcp4 transcript and protein in the two models; 2) the extent of colabeling for markers of neuronal differentiation (βIII-tubulin, Map2c, calbindin, and calretinin) and pcp4 by immunofluorescence analysis and overall protein levels of these markers by Western blotting; and 3) the rate of activation of CaMKII, a Ca(2+) -CaM target, to evaluate the impact of pcp4 overexpression on the Ca(2+) -CaM signaling pathway. We showed that three copies of the pcp4 gene induced the overexpression of transcripts and proteins during embryogenesis. Pcp4 overexpression 1) induced precocious neuronal differentiation, as shown by the distribution and levels of early neuronal markers; and 2) was associated with an increase in CaMKIIδ activation, confirming involvement in neuronal differentiation in vivo via a Pcp4-Ca(2+) -CaM pathway. TgPCP4 and Ts1Cje mice developed similar modifications, demonstrating that these mechanisms may account for abnormal neuronal development in DS.

Mouse models for Down syndrome-associated developmental cognitive disabilities

Down syndrome (DS) is mainly caused by the presence of an extra copy of human chromosome 21 (Hsa21) and is a leading genetic cause for developmental cognitive disabilities in humans. The mouse is a premier model organism for DS because the regions on Hsa21 are syntenically conserved with three regions in the mouse genome, which are located on mouse chromosome 10 (Mmu10), Mmu16 and Mmu17. With the advance of chromosomal manipulation technologies, new mouse mutants have been generated to mimic DS at both the genotypic and phenotypic levels. Further mouse-based molecular genetic studies in the future may lead to the unraveling of the mechanisms underlying DS-associated developmental cognitive disabilities, which would lay the groundwork for developing effective treatments for this phenotypic manifestation. In this review, we will discuss recent progress and future challenges in modeling DS-associated developmental cognitive disability in mice with an emphasis on hippocampus-related phenotypes.

Identification and expression analysis of a novel transcript of the human PRMT2 gene resulted from alternative polyadenylation in breast cancer

The arginine N-methyltransferase 2 protein (PRMT2, also known as HRMT1L1) is thought to act as a coactivator of ERα. The present results show the occurrence of a novel transcript by alternative polyadenylation in the human PRMT2 gene. We demonstrated that the newly identified intron-retaining PRMT2L2 transcript is functionally intact, efficiently translated into protein in vivo. PRMT2 and PRMT2L2 mRNA expression profiles overlap with the distribution of ERα, with the strongest abundance in estrogen target tissues. Transient co-transfection assays demonstrated that PRMT2L2 enhance ERα-mediated transactivation activity of ERE-Luc in a ligand-dependent manner. Confocal microscopy scanning revealed a distinct intra-cellular localization of their fusion proteins, suggesting that the C-terminal region absent in PRMT2L2 is critical for the localization. Statistical analysis further showed that both PRMT2 and PRMT2L2 mRNAexpressions were up-regulated in breast cancer tissues, and significantly associated with ERα positivity status. Thus, post-transcriptional processing mechanism as alternative polyadenylation and splicing may play a crucial role in regulating human PRMT2 gene expression.

Controlled somatic and germline copy number variation in the mouse model

Changes in the number of chromosomes, but also variations in the copy number of chromosomal regions have been described in various pathological conditions, such as cancer and aneuploidy, but also in normal physiological condition. Our classical view of DNA replication and mitotic preservation of the chromosomal integrity is now challenged as new technologies allow us to observe such mosaic somatic changes in copy number affecting regions of chromosomes with various sizes. In order to go further in the understanding of copy number influence in normal condition we could take advantage of the novel strategy called Targeted Asymmetric Sister Chromatin Event of Recombination (TASCER) to induce recombination during the G2 phase so that we can generate deletions and duplications of regions of interest prior to mitosis. Using this approach in the mouse we could address the effects of copy number variation and segmental aneuploidy in daughter cells and allow us to explore somatic mosaics for large region of interest in the mouse.

The telomeric part of the human chromosome 21 from Cstb to Prmt2 is not necessary for the locomotor and short-term memory deficits observed in the Tc1 mouse model of Down syndrome

Trisomy 21 or Down syndrome (DS) is the most common form of human aneuploid disorder. Increase in the copy number of human chromosome 21 genes leads to several alterations including mental retardation, heart and skeletal dysmorphologies with additional physiological defects. To better understand the genotype and phenotype relationships, several mouse models have been developed, including the transchromosomic Tc1 mouse, which carries an almost complete human chromosome 21, that displays several locomotor and cognitive alterations related to DS. In this report we explore the contribution of the genetic dosage of 47 mouse genes located in the most telomeric part of Hsa21, using a novel model, named Ms4Yah, carrying a deletion of the 2.2Mb Ctsb-Prmt2 genetic interval. We combine this deletion with the Tc1 Hsa21 in a rescue experiment. We could recapitulate most of the Tc1 phenotypes but we found no phenotypes induced by the Ms4Yah and no contribution to the Tc1-induced phenotypes even if we described new alteration in social preference but not in olfaction. Thus we conclude that the genes conserved between mouse and human, found in the most telomeric part of Hsa21, and trisomic in Tc1, are not contributing to the major Tc1 phenotypes, suggesting that the Cstb-Prmt2 region is not playing a major role in locomotor and cognitive deficits found in DS.

Down syndrome: from understanding the neurobiology to therapy

Down syndrome (DS) is the most common example of a neurogenetic aneuploid disorder leading to mental retardation. In most cases, DS results from an extra copy of human chromosome 21 producing deregulated gene expression in brain that gives raise to subnormal intellectual functioning. Understanding the consequences of dosage imbalance attributable to trisomy 21 (T21) has accelerated because of recent advances in genome sequencing, comparative genome analysis, functional genome exploration, and the use of model organisms. This has led to new evidence-based therapeutic approaches to prevention or amelioration of T21 effects on brain structure and function (cognition) and has important implications for other areas of research on the neurogenomics of cognition and behavior.

Deficiencies in the region syntenic to human 21q22.3 cause cognitive deficits in mice

Copy-number variation in the human genome can be disease-causing or phenotypically neutral. This type of genetic rearrangement associated with human chromosome 21 (Hsa21) underlies partial Monosomy 21 and Trisomy 21. Mental retardation is a major clinical manifestation of partial Monosomy 21. To model this human chromosomal deletion disorder, we have generated novel mouse mutants carrying heterozygous deletions of the 2.3- and 1.1-Mb segments on mouse chromosome 10 (Mmu10) and Mmu17, respectively, which are orthologous to the regions on human 21q22.3, using Cre/loxP-mediated chromosome engineering. Alterations of the transcriptional levels of genes within the deleted intervals reflect gene-dosage effects in the mutant mice. The analysis of cognitive behaviors shows that the mutant mice carrying the deletion on either Mmu10 or Mmu17 are impaired in learning and memory. Therefore, these mutants represent mouse models for Monosomy 21-associated mental retardation, which can serve as a powerful tool to study the molecular mechanism underlying the clinical phenotype and should facilitate efforts to identify the haploinsufficient causative genes.

Down syndrome and the molecular pathogenesis resulting from trisomy of human chromosome 21

Chromosome copy number aberrations, anueploidies, are common in the human population but generally lethal. However, trisomy of human chromosome 21 is compatible with life and people born with this form of aneuploidy manifest the features of Down syndrome, named after Langdon Down who was a 19(th) century British physician who first described a group of people with this disorder. Down syndrome includes learning and memory deficits in all cases, as well as many other features which vary in penetrance and expressivity in different people. While Down syndrome clearly has a genetic cause - the extra dose of genes on chromosome 21 - we do not know which genes are important for which aspects of the syndrome, which biochemical pathways are disrupted, or, generally how design therapies to ameliorate the effects of these disruptions. Recently, with new insights gained from studying mouse models of Down syndrome, specific genes and pathways are being shown to be involved in the pathogenesis of the disorder. This is opening the way for exciting new studies of potential therapeutics for aspects of Down syndrome, particularly the learning and memory deficits.

A new mouse model for the trisomy of the Abcg1-U2af1 region reveals the complexity of the combinatorial genetic code of down syndrome

Mental retardation in Down syndrome (DS), the most frequent trisomy in humans, varies from moderate to severe. Several studies both in human and based on mouse models identified some regions of human chromosome 21 (Hsa21) as linked to cognitive deficits. However, other intervals such as the telomeric region of Hsa21 may contribute to the DS phenotype but their role has not yet been investigated in detail. Here we show that the trisomy of the 12 genes, found in the 0.59 Mb (Abcg1–U2af1) Hsa21 sub-telomeric region, in mice (Ts1Yah) produced defects in novel object recognition, open-field and Y-maze tests, similar to other DS models, but induces an improvement of the hippocampal-dependent spatial memory in the Morris water maze along with enhanced and longer lasting long-term potentiation in vivo in the hippocampus. Overall, we demonstrate the contribution of the Abcg1–U2af1 genetic region to cognitive defect in working and short-term recognition memory in DS models. Increase in copy number of the Abcg1–U2af1 interval leads to an unexpected gain of cognitive function in spatial learning. Expression analysis pinpoints several genes, such as Ndufv3, Wdr4, Pknox1 and Cbs, as candidates whose overexpression in the hippocampus might facilitate learning and memory in Ts1Yah mice. Our work unravels the complexity of combinatorial genetic code modulating different aspect of mental retardation in DS patients. It establishes definitely the contribution of the Abcg1–U2af1 orthologous region to the DS etiology and suggests new modulatory pathways for learning and memory.

Aneuploidy: from a physiological mechanism of variance to Down syndrome

Quantitative differences in gene expression emerge as a significant source of variation in natural populations, representing an important substrate for evolution and accounting for a considerable fraction of phenotypic diversity. However, perturbation of gene expression is also the main factor in determining the molecular pathogenesis of numerous aneuploid disorders. In this review, we focus on Down syndrome (DS) as the prototype of "genomic disorder" induced by copy number change. The understanding of the pathogenicity of the extra genomic material in trisomy 21 has accelerated in the last years due to the recent advances in genome sequencing, comparative genome analysis, functional genome exploration, and the use of model organisms. We present recent data on the role of genome-altering processes in the generation of diversity in DS neural phenotypes focusing on the impact of trisomy on brain structure and mental retardation and on biological pathways and cell types in target brain regions (including prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, and basal ganglia). We also review the potential that genetically engineered mouse models of DS bring into the understanding of the molecular biology of human learning disorders.

Down syndrome--recent progress and future prospects

Down syndrome (DS) is caused by trisomy of chromosome 21 (Hsa21) and is associated with a number of deleterious phenotypes, including learning disability, heart defects, early-onset Alzheimer's disease and childhood leukaemia. Individuals with DS are affected by these phenotypes to a variable extent; understanding the cause of this variation is a key challenge. Here, we review recent research progress in DS, both in patients and relevant animal models. In particular, we highlight exciting advances in therapy to improve cognitive function in people with DS and the significant developments in understanding the gene content of Hsa21. Moreover, we discuss future research directions in light of new technologies. In particular, the use of chromosome engineering to generate new trisomic mouse models and large-scale studies of genotype–phenotype relationships in patients are likely to significantly contribute to the future understanding of DS.

Inducing segmental aneuploid mosaicism in the mouse through targeted asymmetric sister chromatid event of recombination

Loss or gain of whole chromosomes, or parts of chromosomes, is found in various pathological conditions, such as cancer and aneuploidy, and results from the missegregation of chromosomes during cellular division or abnormal mitotic recombination. We introduce a novel strategy for determining the consequences of segmental aneuploid mosaicism, called targeted asymmetric sister chromatin event of recombination (TASCER). We took advantage of the Cre/loxP system, used extensively in embryonic stem cells for generating deletions and duplications of regions of interest, to induce recombination during the G2 phase. Using two loxP sites in a Cis configuration, we generated in vivo cells harboring microdeletions and microduplications for regions of interest covering up to 2.2 Mb. Using this approach in the mouse provides insight into the consequences of segmental aneuploidy for homologous regions of the human chromosome 21 on cell survival. Furthermore, TASCER shows that Cre-induced recombination is more efficient after DNA replication in vivo and provides an opportunity to evaluate, through genetic mosaics, the outcome of copy number variation and segmental aneuploidy in the mouse.