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Sun X, Xu J, Qi Z. Mechanism properties of a bird-neck bionic rigid-flexible structure. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fmre.2022.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022] Open
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Leal PBC, Cabral-Seanez M, Baliga VB, Altshuler DL, Hartl DJ. Phase transformation-driven artificial muscle mimics the multifunctionality of avian wing muscle. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20201042. [PMID: 34727709 PMCID: PMC8564628 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.1042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle provides a compact solution for performing multiple tasks under diverse operational conditions, a capability lacking in many current engineered systems. Here, we evaluate if shape memory alloy (SMA) components can serve as artificial muscles with tunable mechanical performance. We experimentally impose cyclic stimuli, electric and mechanical, to an SMA wire and demonstrate that this material can mimic the response of the avian humerotriceps, a skeletal muscle that acts in the dynamic control of wing shapes. We next numerically evaluate the feasibility of using SMA springs as artificial leg muscles for a bipedal walking robot. Altering the phase offset between mechanical and electrical stimuli was sufficient for both synthetic and natural muscle to shift between actuation, braking and spring-like behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro B. C. Leal
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Marcela Cabral-Seanez
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Vikram B. Baliga
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Douglas L. Altshuler
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Darren J. Hartl
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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O'Mara MT, Wikelski M, Kranstauber B, Dechmann DKN. Common noctules exploit low levels of the aerosphere. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2019; 6:181942. [PMID: 30891300 PMCID: PMC6408413 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.181942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Aerial habitats present a challenge to find food across a large potential search volume, particularly for insectivorous bats that rely on echolocation calls with limited detection range and may forage at heights over 1000 m. To understand how bats use vertical space, we tracked one to five foraging flights of eight common noctules (Nyctalus noctula). Bats were tracked for their full foraging session (87.27 ± 24 min) using high-resolution atmospheric pressure radio transmitters that allowed us to calculate height and wingbeat frequency. Bats used diverse flight strategies, but generally flew lower than 40 m, with scouting flights to 100 m and a maximum of 300 m. We found no influence of weather on height, and high-altitude ascents were not preceded by an increase in foraging effort. Wingbeat frequency was independent from climbing or descending flight, and bats skipped wingbeats or glided in 10% of all observations. Wingbeat frequency was positively related to capture mass, and wingbeat frequency was positively related to time of night, indicating an effect of load increase over a foraging bout. Overall, individuals used a wide range of airspace including altitudes that put them at increased risk from human-made structures. Further work is needed to test the context of these flight decisions, particularly as individuals migrate throughout Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Teague O'Mara
- Department of Migration and Immuno-Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Am Obstberg 1, 78315 Radolfzell, Germany
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätstrasse 10, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Martin Wikelski
- Department of Migration and Immuno-Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Am Obstberg 1, 78315 Radolfzell, Germany
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätstrasse 10, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Bart Kranstauber
- Department of Migration and Immuno-Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Am Obstberg 1, 78315 Radolfzell, Germany
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zurich 8057, Switzerland
| | - Dina K. N. Dechmann
- Department of Migration and Immuno-Ecology, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Am Obstberg 1, 78315 Radolfzell, Germany
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätstrasse 10, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
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Warrick DR, Hedrick TL, Biewener AA, Crandell KE, Tobalske BW. Foraging at the edge of the world: low-altitude, high-speed manoeuvering in barn swallows. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 371:rstb.2015.0391. [PMID: 27528781 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
While prior studies of swallow manoeuvering have focused on slow-speed flight and obstacle avoidance in still air, swallows survive by foraging at high speeds in windy environments. Recent advances in field-portable, high-speed video systems, coupled with precise anemometry, permit measures of high-speed aerial performance of birds in a natural state. We undertook the present study to test: (i) the manner in which barn swallows (Hirundo rustica) may exploit wind dynamics and ground effect while foraging and (ii) the relative importance of flapping versus gliding for accomplishing high-speed manoeuvers. Using multi-camera videography synchronized with wind-velocity measurements, we tracked coursing manoeuvers in pursuit of prey. Wind speed averaged 1.3-2.0 m s(-1) across the atmospheric boundary layer, exhibiting a shear gradient greater than expected, with instantaneous speeds of 0.02-6.1 m s(-1) While barn swallows tended to flap throughout turns, they exhibited reduced wingbeat frequency, relying on glides and partial bounds during maximal manoeuvers. Further, the birds capitalized on the near-earth wind speed gradient to gain kinetic and potential energy during both flapping and gliding turns; providing evidence that such behaviour is not limited to large, fixed-wing soaring seabirds and that exploitation of wind gradients by small aerial insectivores may be a significant aspect of their aeroecology.This article is part of the themed issue 'Moving in a moving medium: new perspectives on flight'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas R Warrick
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Tyson L Hedrick
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Andrew A Biewener
- Concord Field Station, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Old Causeway Road, Bedford, MA 01730, USA
| | - Kristen E Crandell
- Field Research Station at Fort Missoula, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Bret W Tobalske
- Field Research Station at Fort Missoula, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
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Quinn DB, van Halder Y, Lentink D. Adaptive control of turbulence intensity is accelerated by frugal flow sampling. J R Soc Interface 2017; 14:rsif.2017.0621. [PMID: 29118116 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2017.0621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The aerodynamic performance of vehicles and animals, as well as the productivity of turbines and energy harvesters, depends on the turbulence intensity of the incoming flow. Previous studies have pointed at the potential benefits of active closed-loop turbulence control. However, it is unclear what the minimal sensory and algorithmic requirements are for realizing this control. Here we show that very low-bandwidth anemometers record sufficient information for an adaptive control algorithm to converge quickly. Our online Newton-Raphson algorithm tunes the turbulence in a recirculating wind tunnel by taking readings from an anemometer in the test section. After starting at 9% turbulence intensity, the algorithm converges on values ranging from 10% to 45% in less than 12 iterations within 1% accuracy. By down-sampling our measurements, we show that very-low-bandwidth anemometers record sufficient information for convergence. Furthermore, down-sampling accelerates convergence by smoothing gradients in turbulence intensity. Our results explain why low-bandwidth anemometers in engineering and mechanoreceptors in biology may be sufficient for adaptive control of turbulence intensity. Finally, our analysis suggests that, if certain turbulent eddy sizes are more important to control than others, frugal adaptive control schemes can be particularly computationally effective for improving performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Quinn
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-3030, USA
| | - Yous van Halder
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-3030, USA
| | - David Lentink
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-3030, USA
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Chin DD, Matloff LY, Stowers AK, Tucci ER, Lentink D. Inspiration for wing design: how forelimb specialization enables active flight in modern vertebrates. J R Soc Interface 2017; 14:20170240. [PMID: 28592663 PMCID: PMC5493806 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2017.0240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Harnessing flight strategies refined by millions of years of evolution can help expedite the design of more efficient, manoeuvrable and robust flying robots. This review synthesizes recent advances and highlights remaining gaps in our understanding of how bird and bat wing adaptations enable effective flight. Included in this discussion is an evaluation of how current robotic analogues measure up to their biological sources of inspiration. Studies of vertebrate wings have revealed skeletal systems well suited for enduring the loads required during flight, but the mechanisms that drive coordinated motions between bones and connected integuments remain ill-described. Similarly, vertebrate flight muscles have adapted to sustain increased wing loading, but a lack of in vivo studies limits our understanding of specific muscular functions. Forelimb adaptations diverge at the integument level, but both bird feathers and bat membranes yield aerodynamic surfaces with a level of robustness unparalleled by engineered wings. These morphological adaptations enable a diverse range of kinematics tuned for different flight speeds and manoeuvres. By integrating vertebrate flight specializations-particularly those that enable greater robustness and adaptability-into the design and control of robotic wings, engineers can begin narrowing the wide margin that currently exists between flying robots and vertebrates. In turn, these robotic wings can help biologists create experiments that would be impossible in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana D Chin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Laura Y Matloff
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Amanda Kay Stowers
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Emily R Tucci
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - David Lentink
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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Katzner TE, Turk PJ, Duerr AE, Miller TA, Lanzone MJ, Cooper JL, Brandes D, Tremblay JA, Lemaître J. Use of multiple modes of flight subsidy by a soaring terrestrial bird, the golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos, when on migration. J R Soc Interface 2016; 12:rsif.2015.0530. [PMID: 26538556 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2015.0530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Large birds regularly use updrafts to subsidize flight. Although most research on soaring bird flight has focused on use of thermal updrafts, there is evidence suggesting that many species are likely to use multiple modes of subsidy. We tested the degree to which a large soaring species uses multiple modes of subsidy to provide insights into the decision-making that underlies flight behaviour. We statistically classified more than 22 000 global positioning satellite-global system for mobile communications telemetry points collected at 30-s intervals to identify the type of subsidized flight used by 32 migrating golden eagles during spring in eastern North America. Eagles used subsidized flight on 87% of their journey. They spent 41.9% ± 1.5 ([Formula: see text], range: 18-56%) of their subsidized northbound migration using thermal soaring, 45.2% ± 2.1 (12-65%) of time gliding between thermals, and 12.9% ± 2.2 (1-55%) of time using orographic updrafts. Golden eagles responded to the variable local-scale meteorological events they encountered by switching flight behaviour to take advantage of multiple modes of subsidy. Orographic soaring occurred more frequently in morning and evening, earlier in the migration season, and when crosswinds and tail winds were greatest. Switching between flight modes allowed migration for relatively longer periods each day and frequent switching behaviour has implications for a better understanding of avian flight behaviour and of the evolution of use of subsidy in flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd E Katzner
- Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Parsons, WV 26287, USA
| | - Philip J Turk
- Department of Statistics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Adam E Duerr
- Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Tricia A Miller
- Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Michael J Lanzone
- Cellular Tracking Technologies, LLC, 2405 North Center Avenue, Somerset, PA 15501, USA
| | - Jeff L Cooper
- Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, Fredericksburg, VA 22401, USA
| | - David Brandes
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Lafayette College, Easton, PA 18042, USA
| | | | - Jérôme Lemaître
- Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs, Québec, Québec, Canada G1S 4X4
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Chin DD, Lentink D. Flapping wing aerodynamics: from insects to vertebrates. J Exp Biol 2016; 219:920-32. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.042317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
More than a million insects and approximately 11,000 vertebrates utilize flapping wings to fly. However, flapping flight has only been studied in a few of these species, so many challenges remain in understanding this form of locomotion. Five key aerodynamic mechanisms have been identified for insect flight. Among these is the leading edge vortex, which is a convergent solution to avoid stall for insects, bats and birds. The roles of the other mechanisms – added mass, clap and fling, rotational circulation and wing–wake interactions – have not yet been thoroughly studied in the context of vertebrate flight. Further challenges to understanding bat and bird flight are posed by the complex, dynamic wing morphologies of these species and the more turbulent airflow generated by their wings compared with that observed during insect flight. Nevertheless, three dimensionless numbers that combine key flow, morphological and kinematic parameters – the Reynolds number, Rossby number and advance ratio – govern flapping wing aerodynamics for both insects and vertebrates. These numbers can thus be used to organize an integrative framework for studying and comparing animal flapping flight. Here, we provide a roadmap for developing such a framework, highlighting the aerodynamic mechanisms that remain to be quantified and compared across species. Ultimately, incorporating complex flight maneuvers, environmental effects and developmental stages into this framework will also be essential to advancing our understanding of the biomechanics, movement ecology and evolution of animal flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana D. Chin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - David Lentink
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Engels T, Kolomenskiy D, Schneider K, Lehmann FO, Sesterhenn J. Bumblebee Flight in Heavy Turbulence. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2016; 116:028103. [PMID: 26824570 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.116.028103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
High-resolution numerical simulations of a tethered model bumblebee in forward flight are performed superimposing homogeneous isotropic turbulent fluctuations to the uniform inflow. Despite tremendous variation in turbulence intensity, between 17% and 99% with respect to the mean flow, we do not find significant changes in cycle-averaged aerodynamic forces, moments, or flight power when averaged over realizations, compared to laminar inflow conditions. The variance of aerodynamic measures, however, significantly increases with increasing turbulence intensity, which may explain flight instabilities observed in freely flying bees.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Engels
- M2P2-CNRS & Aix-Marseille Université, 38 rue Joliot-Curie, 13451 Marseille cedex 20 France
- ISTA, Technische Universität Berlin, Müller-Breslau-Strasse 12, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - D Kolomenskiy
- Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoi-Cho, Inage-Ku, Chiba-Shi, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - K Schneider
- M2P2-CNRS & Aix-Marseille Université, 38 rue Joliot-Curie, 13451 Marseille cedex 20 France
| | - F-O Lehmann
- Department of Animal Physiology, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 3, 18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - J Sesterhenn
- ISTA, Technische Universität Berlin, Müller-Breslau-Strasse 12, 10623 Berlin, Germany
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Abstract
Bats are diverse, speciose, and inhabit most of earth’s habitats, aided by powered flapping flight. The many traits that enable flight in these mammals have long attracted popular and research interest, but recent technological and conceptual advances have provided investigators with new kinds of information concerning diverse aspects of flight biology. As a consequence of these new data, our understanding of how bats fly has begun to undergo fundamental changes. Physical and neural science approaches are now beginning to inform understanding of structural architecture of wings. High-speed videography is dramatically expanding documentation of how bats fly. Experimental fluid dynamics and innovative physiological techniques profoundly influence how we interpret the ways bats produce aerodynamic forces as they execute distinctive flight behaviors and the mechanisms that underlie flight energetics. Here, we review how recent bat flight research has provided significant new insights into several important aspects of bat flight structure and function. We suggest that information coming from novel approaches offer opportunities to interconnect studies of wing structure, aerodynamics, and physiology more effectively, and to connect flight biology to newly emerging studies of bat evolution and ecology.
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Affiliation(s)
- S.M. Swartz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - N. Konow
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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Altshuler DL, Bahlman JW, Dakin R, Gaede AH, Goller B, Lentink D, Segre PS, Skandalis DA. The biophysics of bird flight: functional relationships integrate aerodynamics, morphology, kinematics, muscles, and sensors. CAN J ZOOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2015-0103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Bird flight is a remarkable adaptation that has allowed the approximately 10 000 extant species to colonize all terrestrial habitats on earth including high elevations, polar regions, distant islands, arid deserts, and many others. Birds exhibit numerous physiological and biomechanical adaptations for flight. Although bird flight is often studied at the level of aerodynamics, morphology, wingbeat kinematics, muscle activity, or sensory guidance independently, in reality these systems are naturally integrated. There has been an abundance of new studies in these mechanistic aspects of avian biology but comparatively less recent work on the physiological ecology of avian flight. Here we review research at the interface of the systems used in flight control and discuss several common themes. Modulation of aerodynamic forces to respond to different challenges is driven by three primary mechanisms: wing velocity about the shoulder, shape within the wing, and angle of attack. For birds that flap, the distinction between velocity and shape modulation synthesizes diverse studies in morphology, wing motion, and motor control. Recently developed tools for studying bird flight are influencing multiple areas of investigation, and in particular the role of sensory systems in flight control. How sensory information is transformed into motor commands in the avian brain remains, however, a largely unexplored frontier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas L. Altshuler
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Joseph W. Bahlman
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Roslyn Dakin
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Andrea H. Gaede
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Benjamin Goller
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - David Lentink
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Paolo S. Segre
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Dimitri A. Skandalis
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
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Abstract
Environmental turbulence is ubiquitous in natural habitats, but its effect on flying animals remains unknown because most flight studies are performed in still air or artificially smooth flow. Here we show that variability in external airflow limits maximum flight speed in wild orchid bees by causing severe instabilities. Bees flying in front of an outdoor, turbulent air jet become increasingly unstable about their roll axis as airspeed and flow variability increase. Bees extend their hindlegs ventrally at higher speeds, improving roll stability but also increasing body drag and associated power requirements by 30%. Despite the energetic cost, we observed this stability-enhancing behavior in 10 euglossine species from 3 different genera, spanning an order of magnitude in body size. A field experiment in which we altered the level of turbulence demonstrates that flight instability and maximum flight speed are directly related to flow variability. The effect of environmental turbulence on flight stability is thus an important and previously unrecognized determinant of flight performance.
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