Selective Destruction of Interleukin 23-Induced Expansion of a Major Antigen-Specific γδ T-Cell Subset in Patients With Tuberculosis

Functional Analysis of Genes in Mycobacterium tuberculosis Action Against Autophagosome-Lysosome Fusion

Tuberculosis is a lethal disease that is one of the world's top ten death-associated infections in humans; Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes tuberculosis, and this bacterium is linked to the lysis of autophagolysosomal fusion action, a self-defense mechanism of its own. Thus, Cytoplasmic bacilli are sequestered by autophagy and transported to lysosomes to be inactivated to destroy intracellular bacteria. Besides this, a macrophage can limit intracellular Mycobacterium by using a type of autophagy, selective autophagy, a cell that marks undesirable ubiquitin existence in cytosolic cargo, acting as a "eat me" sensor in conjunction with cellular homeostasis. Mycobacterium tuberculosis genes of the PE_PGRS protein family inhibit autophagy, increase mycobacterial survival, and lead to latent tuberculosis infection associated with miRNAs. In addition, the family of autophagy-regulated (ATG) gene members are involved in autophagy and controls the initiation, expansion, maturation, and fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes, among other signaling events that control autophagy flux and reduce inflammatory responses and forward to promote cellular proliferation. In line with the formation of caseous necrosis in macrophages by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and their action on the lysis of autophagosome fusion, it leads to latent tuberculosis infection. Therefore, we aimed to comprehensively analyses the autophagy and self-defense mechanism of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which is to be gratified future research on novel therapeutic tools and diagnostic markers against tuberculosis.

Differential expression analysis of miRNAs in macrophage-derived exosomes in the tuberculosis-infected bone microenvironment

Background

Macrophages play an important role in regulating the course of spinal tuberculosis within the bone microenvironment. This study aimed to investigate the differential expression of miRNA in macrophage-derived exosomes within the tuberculosis-infected bone microenvironment, to identify miRNAs that hold potential as diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets.

Methods

We established study cohorts for spinal tuberculosis, collected bone marrow blood samples, isolated macrophage exosomes, and performed exosome miRNA sequencing. A miRNA-mRNA co-expression network was constructed using WGCNA analysis. Gene GO analysis and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis were performed using KOBAS software. Target miRNAs were selected based on fold change, P-value, and false discovery rate, and their validation was carried out using qRT-PCR and ROC curve studies. Subsequently, we constructed a target gene network for these miRNAs and performed KEGG pathway enrichment analysis to explore the potential signaling mechanisms involved in regulating the disease course of spinal tuberculosis.

Results

Our findings revealed that macrophages from the tuberculosis-infected bone microenvironment exhibited an M1 phenotype. The successful extraction of exosomes from macrophage supernatants was confirmed through electron microscopy, particle size analysis, and protein blot analysis. Exosome miRNA-seq demonstrated that 28 miRNAs were up-regulated, while 34 miRNAs were down-regulated in individuals with spinal tuberculosis. GO analysis and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis indicated that the differentially expressed miRNAs were involved in various biological processes, cell components, molecular functions, and signaling pathways, which collectively contribute to the regulation of the disease course of spinal tuberculosis. Notably, miRNA-125b-5p was successfully selected based on fold change, p-value, and false discovery rate. qRT-PCR validation further confirmed the significant up-regulation of miRNA-125b-5p in spinal tuberculosis. The ROC curve revealed that miR-125b-5p is a potential diagnostic biomarker for spinal tuberculosis. Moreover, construction of the miRNA-125b-5p target gene network and subsequent KEGG enrichment analysis highlighted the importance of MAPK, TNF, Ras, Rap1, and the PI3K-Akt signaling pathways in the regulation of the disease course of spinal tuberculosis.

Conclusion

Our study demonstrates differential expression of miRNAs in macrophage-derived exosomes in the tuberculosis-infected bone microenvironment. Specifically, MiRNA-125b-5p is significantly up-regulated in spinal tuberculosis and shows potential as a diagnostic biomarker for spinal tuberculosis.

Circular RNA circTRAPPC6B Enhances IL-6 and IL-1β Expression and Repolarizes Mycobacteria Induced Macrophages from M2- to M1-Like Phenotype by Targeting miR-892c-3p

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection elicits macrophage polarization into M2 phenotype to block the host's protective immune response. However, it remains unclear how Mtb regulates macrophage polarization. Recent studies have suggested that noncoding RNA may play a role in macrophage polarization. In this study, we investigated the potential involvement of circTRAPPC6B, a circular RNA that is downregulated in tuberculosis (TB) patients, in regulating macrophage polarization. We found that Mtb infection downregulated M1-related IL-6 and IL-1β while highly expressed M2-related CCL22 and CD163. Overexpressed circTRAPPC6B had switched Mtb-infected macrophages from M2- to M1-like phenotype, accompanied by upregulation of IL-6 and IL-1β. Meanwhile overexpressed circTRAPPC6B significantly inhibited Mtb growth in macrophages. Our findings suggest that circTRAPPC6B may regulate macrophage polarization by targeting miR-892c-3p, which is highly expressed in TB patients and M2-like macrophages. And miR-892c-3p inhibitor decreased intracellular Mtb growth in macrophages. Thus, TB-inhibited circTRAPPC6B could specifically induce IL-6 and IL-1β expression to switch/antagonize Mtb-induced macrophage polarization from M2- to M1-like phenotype by targeting miR-892c-3p, leading to enhanced host clearance of Mtb. Our results reveal a potential role for circTRAPPC6B in regulating macrophage polarization during Mtb infection and provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying host defense against Mtb.

Immune regulation and emerging roles of noncoding RNAs in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, engenders an onerous burden on public hygiene. Congenital and adaptive immunity in the human body act as robust defenses against the pathogens. However, in coevolution with humans, this microbe has gained multiple lines of mechanisms to circumvent the immune response to sustain its intracellular persistence and long-term survival inside a host. Moreover, emerging evidence has revealed that this stealthy bacterium can alter the expression of demic noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), leading to dysregulated biological processes subsequently, which may be the rationale behind the pathogenesis of tuberculosis. Meanwhile, the differential accumulation in clinical samples endows them with the capacity to be indicators in the time of tuberculosis suffering. In this article, we reviewed the nearest insights into the impact of ncRNAs during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection as realized via immune response modulation and their potential as biomarkers for the diagnosis, drug resistance identification, treatment evaluation, and adverse drug reaction prediction of tuberculosis, aiming to inspire novel and precise therapy development to combat this pathogen in the future.

Adjunctive Zoledronate+IL-2 administrations enhance anti-tuberculosis Vγ2Vδ2 T-effector populations, and improve treatment outcome of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a refractory disease with high mortality rate due to no or few choices of antibiotics. Adjunctive immunotherapy may help improve treatment outcome of MDR-TB. Our decade-long studies demonstrated that phosphoantigen-specific Vγ2Vδ2 T cells play protective roles in immunity against TB. Here, we hypothesized that enhancing protective Vγ2Vδ2 T-effector cells could improve treatment outcome of MDR-TB. To address this, we employed clinically approved drugs Zoledronate (ZOL) and IL-2 to induce anti-TB Vγ2Vδ2 T-effector cells as adjunctive immunotherapy against MDR-TB infection of macaques. We found that adjunctive ZOL/IL-2 administrations during TB drugs treatment of MDR-TB-infected macaques significantly expanded Vγ2Vδ2 T cells and enhanced/sustained Vγ2Vδ2 T-effector subpopulation producing anti-TB cytokines until week 21. ZOL/IL-2 administrations, while expanding Vγ2Vδ2 T cells, significantly increased/sustained numbers of circulating CD4⁺ Th1 and CD8⁺ Th1-like effector populations, with some γδ T- or αβ T-effector populations trafficking to airway at week 3 until week 19 or 21 after MDR-TB infection. Adjunctive ZOL/IL-2 administrations after MDR-TB infection led to lower bacterial burdens in lungs than TB drugs alone, IL-2 alone or saline controls, and resulted in milder MDR-TB pathology/lesions. Thus, adjunctive Zoledronate + IL-2 administrations can enhance anti-TB Vγ2Vδ2 T- and αβ T-effector populations, and improve treatment outcome of MDR-TB.

Cytokine Receptors-Regulators of Antimycobacterial Immune Response

Cytokine receptors are critical regulators of the antimycobacterial immune response, playing a key role in initiating and coordinating the recruitment and activation of immune cells during infection. They recognize and bind specific cytokines and are involved in inducing intracellular signal transduction pathways that regulate a diverse range of biological functions, including proliferation, differentiation, metabolism and cell growth. Due to mutations in cytokine receptor genes, defective signaling may contribute to increased susceptibility to mycobacteria, allowing the pathogens to avoid killing and immune surveillance. This paper provides an overview of cytokine receptors important for the innate and adaptive immune responses against mycobacteria and discusses the implications of receptor gene defects for the course of mycobacterial infection.

MIR337-3p Enhances Mycobacterial Pathogenicity Involving TLR4/MYD88 and STAT3 Signals, Impairing VDR Antimicrobial Response and Fast-Acting Immunity

Active form of vitamin D (VitD) enhances human innate immunity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection. Our previous studies showed that MIR337-3p was highly expressed in lymphocytes of tuberculosis (TB) patients. Here, we identified the mechanism of MIR337-3p in the regulation of fast-acting anti-TB immunity by inhibiting VitD-dependent antimicrobial response pathways. While high-level MIR337-3p expression was induced by mycobacterial infection in cellular models and mice, TB patients exhibited significantly increased MIR337-3p in CD14⁺ monocytes/macrophages, innate-like Vγ2⁺ T cells, and CD8⁺ lymphocytes containing natural killer (NK)/innate lymphoid cells. MIR337-3p promoted the mycobacterial entry/infection and replication/growth in host target cells: macrophages and lung epithelial cells. Such MIR337-3p-enhanced pathogenicity coincided with the MIR337-3p depression of VitD-dependent antimicrobial response of cytochrome P450, family 27, subfamily b, polypeptide 1 (CYP27B1)/Beta-defensin 4 (DEFB4A)/ cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide CAMP pathways. Surprisingly, single MIR337-3p species could specifically target both the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) 3′-untranslated regions (UTRs) to depress the TLR4/MYD88 and STAT3 signals and impair either of the two signals inhibiting the VitD-dependent antimicrobial pathways in macrophages. Concurrently, human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) expressing high-level MIR337-3p exhibited a reduced ability of innate cell populations to mount fast-acting cellular immunity against intracellular mycobacterial infection. Furthermore, a higher expression of Mir337-3p after mycobacterial infection of mice coincided with much greater colony-forming unit (CFU) counts in lungs and even the death of infected animals, whereas Mir337-3p inhibitor treatment of infected mice reduced Mir337-3p levels and reversed Mir337-3p-mediated increases in CFU counts. Thus, TB-driven single MIR337-3p species could specifically target/impair both TLR4/MYD88 and STAT3 activation signals, inhibiting VitD-dependent antimicrobial response and fast-acting anti-TB immunity, leading to enhanced pathogenicity.

miR-495 Regulates Cellular Reactive Oxygen Species Levels by Targeting sod2 To Inhibit Intracellular Survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Macrophages

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a chronic infectious disease pathogen. To date, tuberculosis is a major infectious disease that endangers human health. To better prevent and treat tuberculosis, it is important to study the pathogenesis of M. tuberculosis. Based on early-stage laboratory research results, in this study, we verified the upregulation of sod2 in Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) and H37Rv infection. By detecting BCG/H37Rv intracellular survival in sod2-silenced and sod2-overexpressing macrophages, sod2 was found to promote the intracellular survival of BCG/H37Rv. miR-495 then was determined to be downregulated by BCG/H37Rv. BCG/H37Rv can upregulate sod2 expression by miR-495 to promote the intracellular survival of BCG/H37Rv through a decline in ROS levels. This study provides a theoretical basis for developing new drug targets and treating tuberculosis.

Genetics and Functional Mechanisms of STAT3 Polymorphisms in Human Tuberculosis

Signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3) plays an important role in biological balance. Our and others previous studies implied that STAT3 had a great effect on fast-acting innate immunity against tuberculosis (TB). We hypothesized that stat3 SNP down-regulation of STAT3 leads to a change in susceptibility to TB in humans. To test this hypothesis, we investigated STAT3 SNPs using SNP scan™ technique in a case-control study of TB patients (n = 470) and HC subjects (n = 356), and then conducted functional studies of them using cellular models. We found that SNPs in STAT3 3`-UTR of rs1053004 TT and rs1053005 AA genotypes or T-A haplotype were associated with susceptibility to TB or TB severity. While the TT/AA genotype correlated with the low constitutive expression of stat3 and IL-17A in PBMC, the variant stat3 of rs1053004-rs1053005 T-A haplotype indeed reduced stat3 expression in reporter assays. Interestingly, host PBMC expressing the rs1053005 AA genotype and low constitutive stat3 exhibited the reduced ability to mount fast-acting innate immunity against mycobacterial infection in cellular models. Finally, mechanistic experiments showed that the STAT3 down-regulation broadly depressed STAT3 downstream anti-mycobacterial activities involving VDR-related CAMP pathway as well as IL-32, iNOS and autophagy mechanisms, leading to an enhanced mycobacterial infection. The findings of this study suggest that low constitutive stat3 derived from the TT/AA genotype/T-A haplotype acts to down-regulate STAT3, depressing multiple anti-mycobacterial pathways/mechanisms downstream, which leads to an enhanced mycobacterial infection or TB in high-risk individuals.

A CD4+CD161+ T-Cell Subset Present in Unexposed Humans, Not Tb Patients, Are Fast Acting Cells That Inhibit the Growth of Intracellular Mycobacteria Involving CD161 Pathway, Perforin, and IFN-γ/Autophagy

It remains undefined whether a subset of CD4+ T cells can function as fast-acting cells to control Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection. Here we show that the primary CD4+CD161+ T-cell subset, not CD4+CD161-, in unexposed healthy humans fast acted as unconventional T cells capable of inhibiting intracellular Mtb and BCG growth upon exposure to infected autologous and allogeneic macrophages or lung epithelial A549 cells. Such inhibition coincided with the ability of primary CD4+CD161+ T cells to rapidly express/secrete anti-TB cytokines including IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-17, and perforin upon exposure to Mtb. Mechanistically, blockades of CD161 pathway, perforin or IFN-γ by blocking mAbs abrogated the ability of CD4+CD161+ T cells to inhibit intracellular mycobacterial growth. Pre-treatment of infected macrophages with inhibitors of autophagy also blocked the CD4+CD161+ T cell-mediated growth inhibition of mycobacteria. Furthermore, adoptive transfer of human CD4+CD161+ T cells conferred protective immunity against mycobacterial infection in SCID mice. Surprisingly, CD4+CD161+ T cells in TB patients exhibited a loss or reduction of their capabilities to produce perforin/IFN-γ and to inhibit intracellular growth of mycobacteria in infected macrophages. These immune dysfunctions were consistent with PD1/Tim3 up-regulation on CD4+CD161+ T cells in active tuberculosis patients, and the blockade of PD1/Tim3 on this subset cells enhanced the inhibition of intracellular mycobacteria survival. Thus, these findings suggest that a fast-acting primary CD4+CD161+T-cell subset in unexposed humans employs the CD161 pathway, perforin, and IFN-γ/autophagy to inhibit the growth of intracellular mycobacteria, thereby distinguishing them from the slow adaptive responses of conventional CD4+ T cells. The presence of fast-acting CD4+CD161+ T-cell that inhibit mycobacterial growth in unexposed humans but not TB patients also implicates the role of these cells in protective immunity against initial Mtb infection.

Silencing miR-125b-5p attenuates inflammatory response and apoptosis inhibition in mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected human macrophages by targeting DNA damage-regulated autophagy modulator 2 (DRAM2)

Tuberculosis is one of the most important infectious diseases worldwide and macrophage apoptosis is the major host defense mechanism against TB. We attempted to characterize the role of miRNA (miR)-125b-5p on mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection and macrophages behaviors in vitro. According to fluorescence-activated cell separation (FACS), primary monocytes (CD14⁺) in TB patients were accumulated, and apoptotic monocytes were decreased. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs)-derived macrophages (MDMs) and monocytic cells THP-1-derived macrophage-like cells (TDMs) in vitro were used to be infected with H37Rv. After infection, colony-forming units assay revealed the increase of bacterial activity, FACS demonstrated the decrease of apoptosis rate of MDMs and TDMs, as well as promoted levels of IL-6, TNF-α, Bax, and Bim and suppressed levels of IL-10 and Bcl-2, examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and western blot assay. Expression of miR-125b-5p and DNA damage-regulated autophagy modulator 2 (DRAM2) was examined, and real-time PCR and western blot assay showed that miR-125b-5p was upregulated, whereas DRAM2 was downregulated in primary monocytes and H37Rv-infected macrophages (MDMs and TDMs). Moreover, blocking miR-125b-5p could attenuated H37Rv-induced bacterial activity and inflammatory response of MDMs and TDMs, accompanied with apoptosis inhibition. Whereas these effects of miR-125b-5p knockdown were abolished by downregulating DRAM2. In mechanism, DRAM2 was a downstream target of miR-125b-5p, as evidenced by dual-luciferase reporter assay. Collectively, silencing miR-125b-5p could protect human macrophages against Mtb infection through promoting apoptosis and inhibiting inflammatory response via targeting DRAM2, suggesting a novel target for Mtb eliminating. Abbreviations: TB: tuberculosis; PBMCs: peripheral blood mononuclear cells; Mtb: mycobacterium tuberculosis; AFB: acid fast bacilli; FITC: fluorescein isothiocyanate; MDMs: monocytes-derived macrophages; TDMs: THP-1-derived macrophage-like cells; ERFP: Mtb-enhanced red fluorescent protein; CFU: colony-forming units; ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; FACS: fluorescence-activated cell separation; PI: propidium iodide; DRAM2: DNA damage-regulated autophagy modulator 2; Real-time PCR: real-time polymerase chain reaction; in-miR-125b-5p: miR-125b-5p inhibitor; si-DRAM2: siRNA against DRAM2.

Immunoregulatory Functions of the IL-12 Family of Cytokines in Antiviral Systems

Members of the interleukin 12 (IL-12) family have been known to be inflammatory factors since their discovery. The IL-12 family consists of IL-12, IL-23, IL-27, IL-35, and a new member, IL-39, which has recently been identified and has not yet been studied extensively. Current literature has described the mechanisms of immunity of these cytokines and potential uses for therapy and medical cures. IL-12 was found first and is effective in combatting a wide range of naturally occurring viral infections through the upregulation of various cytokines to clear the infected cells. IL-23 has an essential function in immune networks, can induce IL-17 production, and can antagonize inhibition from IL-12 in the presence of T helper (Th) 17 cells, resulting in type II IFN (IFN-γ) regulation. IL-27 has a competitive relationship to IL-35 because they both include the same subunit, the Epstein–Barr virus-induced gene3 (EBi3). This review provides a simple introduction to the IL-12 family and focuses on their functions relevant to their actions to counteract viral infections.

Development of a Non-Coding-RNA-based EMT/CSC Inhibitory Nanomedicine for In Vivo Treatment and Monitoring of HCC

The objective of this study is to improve the overall prognosis of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC); therefore, new therapeutic methods that can be used in vivo are urgently needed. In this study, the relationship between the quantities of microRNA (miR)-125b-5p in clinical specimens and clinicopathological parameters is analyzed. A folate-conjugated nanocarrier is used to transfect miR-125b-5p in vivo and to observe the therapeutic effect on HCC. The inhibitory effect and mechanism of miR-125b-5p on hepatoma cells are also studied. Data from clinical specimens and in vitro experiments confirm that the miR-125b-5p quantity is negatively correlated with progression, and the target protein that regulates the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)/cancer stem cells (CSC) potential in HCC is STAT3. The miR-125b-5p/STAT3 axis inhibits the invasion, migration, and growth of HCC via inactivation of the wnt/β-Catenin pathway. miR-125b-5p-loaded nanomedicine effectively inhibits the EMT/CSC potential of hepatoma cells in vivo together with their magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) visualization characteristics. An HCC-therapeutic and MRI-visible nanomedicine platform that achieves noninvasive treatment effect monitoring and timely individualized treatment course adjustment is developed.

Immunological recovery in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis after intensive phase treatment

Objectives

This study aimed to examine the change and significance of immune parameters in patients with sputum smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) after 2 months of intensive phase anti-TB treatment.

Methods

The immune parameters of 232 cases of sputum smear-positive pulmonary TB were detected before and after 2 months of intensive phase anti-TB treatment and compared with 50 cases from healthy volunteers (controls). The T lymphocyte cell population in peripheral blood was detected using flow cytometry. Serum levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, soluble interleukin-2 receptor, IL-6, and tumour necrosis factor-α were measured by ELISA.

Results

After 2 months of intensive phase anti-TB treatment, a reduction in the percentage of CD4+ T cells showed a significant restoration similar to that of controls. Moreover, after intensive anti-TB treatment, serum levels of IL-1β, soluble interleukin-2 receptor, IL-6, and tumour necrosis factor-α were significantly decreased compared with before treatment. Additionally, serum levels of IL-1β and IL-6 showed a diminished recovery compared with controls.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest immunological recovery in patients with pulmonary TB after intensive phase treatment. Therefore, serum cytokine levels are considered potential host biomarkers for monitoring the response of treatment for pulmonary TB.

23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine elicits hierarchical antibody and cellular responses in healthy and tuberculosis-cured elderly, and HIV-1-infected subjects

The PPV23 immunizes healthy elderly and other high-risk populations against pneumococcal disease. Immune mechanisms whereby these populations differently mount antibody(Ab) and cellular responses to PPV23 vaccination remain unknown. Here, healthy elderly, those elderly with prior tuberculosis-cured history (TB-cured), and HIV-infected humans were vaccinated with PPV23, and assessed for opsonophagocytic Ab responses and potential cellular mechanisms. PPV23 vaccination elicited hierarchical responses of opsonophagocytic Ab. PPV23-elicited Ab titers were highest in healthy elderly, significantly lower in TB-cured elderly and lowest in HIV-infected subjects. Mechanistically, high PPV23-elicited Ab titers in healthy elderly were associated with increases in CD19 + CD69+ cells and CD19 + CD138 + plasma cells. Surprisingly, TB-cured elderly failed to show PPV23-induced increases in these cells. While HIV-infected subjects showed a depressed CD19 + CD69+ cellular response, PPV23 vaccination uncovered HIV-related over-reactive increases in CD19 + CD138 + cells. For the first time, we demonstrate that PPV23-elicted opsonophagocytic Ab titers correlate with different cellular responses in healthy, TB-cured and HIV statuses.

Psoriasis: A STAT3-Centric View

Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT)3 has recently emerged as a key player in the development and pathogenesis of psoriasis and psoriatic-like inflammatory conditions. Indeed, STAT3 hyperactivation has been reported in virtually every cell type involved in disease initiation and maintenance, and this factor mediates the signal of most cytokines that are involved in disease pathogenesis, including the central Interleukin (IL)-23/IL-17/IL-22 axis. Despite the recent availability of effective biological agents (monoclonal antibodies) against IL-17 and IL-23, which have radically changed the current standard of disease management, the possibility of targeting either STAT3 itself or, even better, the family of upstream activators Janus kinases (JAK1, 2, 3, and TYK2) offers additional therapeutic options. Due to the oral/topical administration modality of these small molecule drugs, their lower cost, and the reduced risk of eliciting adverse immune responses, these compounds are being actively scrutinized in clinical settings. Here, we summarize the main pathological features of psoriatic conditions that provide the rationale for targeting the JAK/STAT3 axis in disease treatment.

Tertiary Lymphoid Structures Among the World of Noncanonical Ectopic Lymphoid Organizations

Tertiary lymphoid structures (TLOs), also known as ectopic lymphoid structures, are associated with chronic infections and inflammatory diseases. Despite their association with pathology, these structures are actually a normal, albeit transient, component of the immune system and facilitate local immune responses that are meant to mitigate inflammation and resolve infection. Many of the mechanisms controlling the formation and function of tertiary lymphoid structures have been identified, in part by experimentally triggering their formation using defined stimuli under controlled conditions. Here, we introduce the experimental and pathological conditions in which tertiary lymphoid tissues are formed, describe the mechanisms linked to their formation, and discuss their functions in the context of both infection and inflammation.

The crucial roles of Th17-related cytokines/signal pathways in M. tuberculosis infection

Interleukin-17 (IL-17), IL-21, IL-22 and IL-23 can be grouped as T helper 17 (Th17)-related cytokines because they are either produced by Th17/Th22 cells or involved in their development. Here, we review Th17-related cytokines/Th17-like cells, networks/signals and their roles in immune responses or immunity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection. Published studies suggest that Th17-related cytokine pathways may be manipulated by Mtb microorganisms for their survival benefits in primary tuberculosis (TB). In addition, there is evidence that immune responses of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signal pathway and Th17-like T-cell subsets are dysregulated or destroyed in patients with TB. Furthermore, Mtb infection can impact upstream cytokines in the STAT3 pathway of Th17-like responses. Based on these findings, we discuss the need for future studies and the rationale for targeting Th17-related cytokines/signals as a potential adjunctive treatment.