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Mourad O, Makhani L, Chen LH. Chikungunya: An Emerging Public Health Concern. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2022; 24:217-228. [DOI: 10.1007/s11908-022-00789-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Purpose of Review
The worldwide spread of chikungunya over the past two decades calls for greater knowledge and awareness of the virus, its route of transmission, methods of diagnosis, and the use of available treatment and prevention measures.
Recent Findings
Chikungunya virus infection, an Aedes mosquito-borne febrile disease, has spread from Africa and Asia to Europe and the Americas and from the tropics and subtropics to temperate regions. International travel is a pivotal influence in the emergence of chikungunya as a global public health threat, as evidenced by a growing number of published reports on travel-related chikungunya infections. The striking features of chikungunya are arthralgia and arthritis, and the disease is often mistaken for dengue. Although mortality is low, morbidity can be profound and persistent. Current treatment for chikungunya is supportive; chikungunya vaccines and therapeutics are in development. Travelers planning to visit areas where the mosquito vectors are present should be advised on preventive measures.
Summary
Chikungunya is an emerging disease in the Americas. Frequent travel, the presence of at least two competent mosquito species, and a largely naïve human population in the Western Hemisphere create a setting conducive to future outbreaks. Awareness of the disease and its manifestations is critical to effectively and safely manage and limit its impact. Vaccines in late-stage clinical trials offer a new pathway to prevention.
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Olajiga OM, Adesoye OE, Emilolorun AP, Adeyemi AJ, Adeyefa EO, Aderibigbe IA, Adejumo SA, Adebimpe WO, Opaleye OO, Sule WF, Oluwayelu DO. Chikungunya Virus Seroprevalence and Associated Factors among Hospital Attendees in Two States of Southwest Nigeria: A Preliminary Assessment. Immunol Invest 2017; 46:552-565. [PMID: 28742401 DOI: 10.1080/08820139.2017.1319383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a re-emerging pathogen causing long-term polyarthritis and encephalitis. In conducting a preliminary investigation, we hypothesized that there is no serologic evidence of CHIKV infection among attendees of selected hospitals in Lagos and Osun States, Nigeria. Sera from 304 consecutively selected participants were screened for CHIKV IgG and IgM using ELISA. Findings were analyzed vis-à-vis participants' demographic and clinical data. Over 90.0% of the participants had never heard of CHIKV despite the fact that a large proportion of them (88.8%) had secondary/tertiary education. Overall, 41.8% were positive for, at least, one antibody type (IgG or IgM), while about 16.0% of the participants had dual seropositivity (CHIKV IgG and IgM) with gender as associated factor (odds ratio [OR]: 2.8, p = 0.03). Prevalence rates were 31.8% and 38.4% for CHIKV IgG and IgM, respectively. Only hospital location (Osogbo) was associated with CHIKV IgG (OR: 2.2, p = 0.009), while gender alone was associated with CHIKV IgM (OR: 3.0, p = 0.001). Participants seropositive for CHIKV antibodies were mostly adults (18-59 yrs) belonging to the active work-force; five (22.7%) and three (20.0%) of the pregnant participants had CHIKV IgG and IgM, respectively. Detection of CHIKV IgM in some participants might make them potentially infectious to the newborn and mosquito vectors. Importantly, participants positive for either IgG or IgM had fever (72.8%, 67.2%) and general body pains (61.7%, 57.6%), respectively. This ELISA-based study revealed serologic evidence of CHIKV infection among hospital attendees in Lagos and Osun states with the group-specific prevalence rates being considerably high. ABBREVIATIONS Chikungunya virus (CHIKV); Chikungunya (CHIK); enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); immunoglobulin G or M (IgG/IgM); odds ratio (OR); non-structural proteins (nsP); hemagglutination inhibiting (HI); complement fixing (CF); neutralization test (NT); immunofluorescence assay (IFA); plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT); confidence interval (CI); analysis of variance (ANOVA); body temperature (BT); Building Nigeria's Response to Climate Change (BNRCC).
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Affiliation(s)
- Olayinka M Olajiga
- a Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences , Osun State University , Osogbo , Nigeria
| | - Olajumoke E Adesoye
- a Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences , Osun State University , Osogbo , Nigeria
| | - Adewale P Emilolorun
- a Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences , Osun State University , Osogbo , Nigeria
| | - Abiodun J Adeyemi
- a Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences , Osun State University , Osogbo , Nigeria
| | - Emmanuel O Adeyefa
- a Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences , Osun State University , Osogbo , Nigeria
| | - Ismail A Aderibigbe
- a Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences , Osun State University , Osogbo , Nigeria
| | - Salmot A Adejumo
- a Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences , Osun State University , Osogbo , Nigeria
| | - Wasiu O Adebimpe
- b Department of Community Medicine, College of Health Sciences , Osun State University , Osogbo , Nigeria
| | - Oluyinka O Opaleye
- c Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, College of Health Sciences , Ladoke Akintola University of Technology , Osogbo , Nigeria
| | - Waidi F Sule
- a Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences , Osun State University , Osogbo , Nigeria
| | - Daniel O Oluwayelu
- d Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , University of Ibadan , Ibadan , Nigeria
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Aguirre-Obando OA, Martins AJ, Navarro-Silva MA. First report of the Phe1534Cys kdr mutation in natural populations of Aedes albopictus from Brazil. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:160. [PMID: 28347326 PMCID: PMC5369189 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2089-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Knockdown resistance (kdr), caused by alterations in the voltage-gated sodium channel (NaV), is one of the mechanisms responsible for pyrethroid (PY) resistance. In the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, at least four different mutations were described in the IIIS6 NaV segment in populations from Asia, North America and Europe. In contrast, in Aedes aegypti at least 12 non-synonymous mutations have been reported at nine different codons, mostly in the IIS6 and IIIS6 NaV segments. The Phe1534Cys kdr mutation in the IIIS6 NaV segment is the most prevalent in populations of Ae. aegypti worldwide, also found in Ae. albopictus from Singapore. Herein, we investigated the DNA diversity corresponding to the IIS6 and IIIS6 NaV segments in natural populations of Ae. albopictus from Brazil. Methods DNA from eight Brazilian Ae. albopictus natural populations were individually extracted and pooled by states of origin, amplified, cloned and sequenced for the corresponding IIS6 and IIIS6 NaV segments. Additionally, samples from each location were individually genotyped by an allelic specific PCR (AS-PCR) approach to obtain the genotypic and allelic frequencies for the 1534 NaV site. Results No non-synonymous substitutions were observed in the IIS6 sequences. However, the Phe1534Cys kdr mutation was evidenced in the Ae. albopictus NaV IIIS6 segment sequences from Paraná (PR) and Rondônia (RO) states, but not from Mato Grosso (MT) state. The 1534Cyskdr allele varied from 3% (Marilena/PR and Porto Velho/RO) to 10% (Foz do Iguaçu/PR). To our knowledge, this paper reports the first occurrence and provides distribution data of a possible kdr mutation in Ae. albopictus in South America. Conclusion The emergence of a likely kdr mutation in Ae. albopitus natural populations is a signal of alert for vector control measures since PY are the most popular insecticides adopted by residents. Additionally, once the kdr allele is present, its frequency tends to increase faster under exposition to those compounds. Although the Asian tiger mosquito is not incriminated as an important vector of dengue, chikungunya and Zika viruses in South America, its importance in this regard has been extensively discussed since Ae. albopictus is rapidly spreading and can also migrate between sylvatic and urban environments. Therefore, insecticide resistance monitoring initiatives should also be extended to Ae. albopictus in Brazil in order to maintain chemical compounds as an efficient vector control tool when needed. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2089-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Alexander Aguirre-Obando
- Laboratório de Entomologia Médica e Veterinária, Setor de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, PO Box 19020, Curitiba, 81531-980, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Ademir Jesus Martins
- Laboratório de Fisiologia e Controle de Artrópodes Vetores, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz-FIOCRUZ, Av. Brasil 4365, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, PO Box 2104-900, Brazil. .,Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Mário Antônio Navarro-Silva
- Laboratório de Entomologia Médica e Veterinária, Setor de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, PO Box 19020, Curitiba, 81531-980, Paraná, Brazil
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Ngoagouni C, Kamgang B, Brengues C, Yahouedo G, Paupy C, Nakouné E, Kazanji M, Chandre F. Susceptibility profile and metabolic mechanisms involved in Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus resistant to DDT and deltamethrin in the Central African Republic. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:599. [PMID: 27881148 PMCID: PMC5121976 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1887-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus are the main epidemic vectors of dengue, chikungunya and Zika viruses worldwide. Their control during epidemics relies mainly on control of larvae and adults with insecticides. Unfortunately, loss of susceptibility of both species to several insecticide classes limits the efficacy of interventions. In Africa, where Aedes-borne viruses are of growing concern, few data are available on resistance to insecticides. To fill this gap, we assessed the susceptibility to insecticides of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus populations in the Central African Republic (CAR) and studied the mechanisms of resistance. Methods Immature stages were sampled between June and September 2014 in six locations in Bangui (the capital of CAR) for larval and adult bioassays according to WHO standard procedures. We also characterized DDT- and pyrethroid-resistant mosquitoes molecularly and biochemically, including tests for the activities of nonspecific esterases (α and β), mixed-function oxidases, insensitive acetylcholinesterase and glutathione S-transferases. Results Larval bioassays, carried out to determine the lethal concentrations (LC50 and LC95) and resistance ratios (RR50 and RR95), suggested that both vector species were susceptible to Bacillus thuringiensis var. israeliensis and to temephos. Bioassays of adults showed susceptibility to propoxur and fenitrothion, except for one Ae. albopictus population that was suspected to be resistant to fenithrothion. None of the Ae. aegypti populations was fully susceptible to DDT. Ae. albopictus presented a similar profile to Ae. aegypti but with a lower mortality rate (41%). Possible resistance to deltamethrin was observed among Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus, although some were susceptible. No kdr mutations were detected in either species; however, the activity of detoxifying enzymes was higher in most populations than in the susceptible Ae. aegypti strain, confirming decreased susceptibility to DDT and deltamethrin. Conclusion These findings suggested that regular, continuous monitoring of resistance is necessary in order to select the most effective adulticides for arbovirus control in Bangui. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1887-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carine Ngoagouni
- Institut Pasteur de Bangui, PO Box 923, Bangui, Central African Republic.
| | - Basile Kamgang
- Research Unit Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale, PO Box 288, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Cécile Brengues
- Laboratoire des Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle, Unité mixte de Recherche 224-5290, Centre National de Recherche Scientifique-Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Gildas Yahouedo
- Laboratoire des Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle, Unité mixte de Recherche 224-5290, Centre National de Recherche Scientifique-Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Christophe Paupy
- Laboratoire des Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle, Unité mixte de Recherche 224-5290, Centre National de Recherche Scientifique-Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Emmanuel Nakouné
- Institut Pasteur de Bangui, PO Box 923, Bangui, Central African Republic
| | - Mirdad Kazanji
- Institut Pasteur de Bangui, PO Box 923, Bangui, Central African Republic.,Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, BP 6010, 23 Avenue Pasteur, 97306, Cayenne, French Guiana
| | - Fabrice Chandre
- Laboratoire des Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle, Unité mixte de Recherche 224-5290, Centre National de Recherche Scientifique-Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
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Virus-specific thermostability and heat inactivation profiles of alphaviruses. J Virol Methods 2016; 234:152-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Antiviral activity of selected flavonoids against Chikungunya virus. Antiviral Res 2016; 133:50-61. [PMID: 27460167 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2016.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
This study focuses on the antiviral activity of selected flavonoids against the Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), a mosquito-transmitted virus that can cause incapacitating arthritis in infected individuals. Based on the results of screening on Vero cells, the tested compounds were evaluated further with various assays, including cytotoxicity assay, virus yield assay by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), virus RNA replication assay with a CHIKV replicon cell line, Western blotting, and quantitative immunofluorescence assay. Baicalein, fisetin, and quercetagetin displayed potent inhibition of CHIKV infection, with 50% inhibitory concentrations [IC50] of 1.891 μg/ml (6.997 μM), 8.444 μg/ml (29.5 μM), and 13.85 μg/ml (43.52 μM), respectively, and with minimal cytotoxicity. The time-of-addition studies and various antiviral assays demonstrated that baicalein and quercetagetin mainly inhibited CHIKV binding to the Vero cells and displayed potent activity against extracellular CHIKV particles. The qRT-PCR, immunofluorescence assay, and Western blot analyses indicated that each of these flavonoids affects CHIKV RNA production and viral protein expression. These data provide the first evidence of the intracellular anti-CHIKV activity of baicalein, fisetin, and quercetagetin.
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Roques P, Ng LFP, Sam IC, Higgs S. Chikungunya: international focus issue. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2016; 15:221-2. [PMID: 25897808 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2015.9001.int] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Roques
- 1 CEA, Division of Immuno-Virology, iMETI, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France and University Paris-Sud XI , Orsay, France
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Staveness D, Abdelnabi R, Near KE, Nakagawa Y, Neyts J, Delang L, Leyssen P, Wender PA. Inhibition of Chikungunya Virus-Induced Cell Death by Salicylate-Derived Bryostatin Analogues Provides Additional Evidence for a PKC-Independent Pathway. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2016; 79:680-4. [PMID: 26900711 PMCID: PMC4942189 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b01017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) has been spreading rapidly, with over one million confirmed or suspected cases in the Americas since late 2013. Infection with CHIKV causes devastating arthritic and arthralgic symptoms. Currently, there is no therapy to treat this disease, and the only medications focus on relief of symptoms. Recently, protein kinase C (PKC) modulators have been reported to inhibit CHIKV-induced cell death in cell assays. The salicylate-derived bryostatin analogues described here are structurally simplified PKC modulators that are more synthetically accessible than the natural product bryostatin 1, a PKC modulator and clinical lead for the treatment of cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and HIV eradication. Evaluation of the anti-CHIKV activity of these salicylate-derived bryostatin analogues in cell culture indicates that they are among the most potent cell-protective agents reported to date. Given that they are more accessible and significantly more active than the parent natural product, they represent new therapeutic leads for controlling CHIKV infection. Significantly, these analogues also provide evidence for the involvement of a PKC-independent pathway. This adds a fundamentally distinct aspect to the importance or involvement of PKC modulation in inhibition of chikungunya virus replication, a topic of recent and growing interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daryl Staveness
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Rana Abdelnabi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven–University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Katherine E. Near
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Yu Nakagawa
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Johan Neyts
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven–University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Leen Delang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven–University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Pieter Leyssen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven–University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Paul A. Wender
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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Staveness D, Abdelnabi R, Schrier AJ, Loy B, Verma VA, DeChristopher BA, Near KE, Neyts J, Delang L, Leyssen P, Wender PA. Simplified Bryostatin Analogues Protect Cells from Chikungunya Virus-Induced Cell Death. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2016; 79:675-9. [PMID: 26900625 PMCID: PMC4928627 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b01016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a mosquito-borne alphavirus showing a recent resurgence and rapid spread worldwide. While vaccines are under development, there are currently no therapies to treat this disease, except for over-the-counter (OTC) analgesics, which alleviate the devastating arthritic and arthralgic symptoms. To identify novel inhibitors of the virus, analogues of the natural product bryostatin 1, a clinical lead for the treatment of cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and HIV eradication, were investigated for in vitro antiviral activity and were found to be among the most potent inhibitors of CHIKV replication reported to date. Bryostatin-based therapeutic efforts and even recent anti-CHIKV strategies have centered on modulation of protein kinase C (PKC). Intriguingly, while the C ring of bryostatin primarily drives interactions with PKC, A- and B-ring functionality in these analogues has a significant effect on the observed cell-protective activity. Significantly, bryostatin 1 itself, a potent pan-PKC modulator, is inactive in these assays. These new findings indicate that the observed anti-CHIKV activity is not solely mediated by PKC modulation, suggesting possible as yet unidentified targets for CHIKV therapeutic intervention. The high potency and low toxicity of these bryologs make them promising new leads for the development of a CHIKV treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daryl Staveness
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and
Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Rana Abdelnabi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical
Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven−University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Adam J. Schrier
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and
Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Brian
A. Loy
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and
Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Vishal A. Verma
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and
Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Brian A. DeChristopher
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and
Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Katherine E. Near
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and
Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Johan Neyts
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical
Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven−University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
- E-mail:
| | - Leen Delang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical
Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven−University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Pieter Leyssen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical
Research, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, KU Leuven−University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Paul A. Wender
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and
Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- E-mail:
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Abstract
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), a mosquito-borne alphavirus of increasing public health significance, has caused large epidemics in Africa and the Indian Ocean basin; now it is spreading throughout the Americas. The primary vectors of CHIKV are Aedes (Ae.) aegypti and, after the introduction of a mutation in the E1 envelope protein gene, the highly anthropophilic and geographically widespread Ae. albopictus mosquito. We review here research efforts to characterize the viral genetic basis of mosquito-vector interactions, the use of RNA interference and other strategies for the control of CHIKV in mosquitoes, and the potentiation of CHIKV infection by mosquito saliva. Over the past decade, CHIKV has emerged on a truly global scale. Since 2013, CHIKV transmission has been reported throughout the Caribbean region, in North America, and in Central and South American countries, including Brazil, Columbia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Nicaragua, Panama, Suriname, and Venezuela. Closing the gaps in our knowledge of driving factors behind the rapid geographic expansion of CHIKV should be considered a research priority. The abundance of multiple primate species in many of these countries, together with species of mosquito that have never been exposed to CHIKV, may provide opportunities for this highly adaptable virus to establish sylvatic cycles that to date have not been seen outside of Africa. The short-term and long-term ecological consequences of such transmission cycles, including the impact on wildlife and people living in these areas, are completely unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Higgs
- 1 Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University , Manhattan, Kansas
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