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Sumida TS, Cheru NT, Hafler DA. The regulation and differentiation of regulatory T cells and their dysfunction in autoimmune diseases. Nat Rev Immunol 2024; 24:503-517. [PMID: 38374298 PMCID: PMC11216899 DOI: 10.1038/s41577-024-00994-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
The discovery of FOXP3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells as a distinct cell lineage with a central role in regulating immune responses provided a deeper understanding of self-tolerance. The transcription factor FOXP3 serves a key role in Treg cell lineage determination and maintenance, but is not sufficient to enable the full potential of Treg cell suppression, indicating that other factors orchestrate the fine-tuning of Treg cell function. Moreover, FOXP3-independent mechanisms have recently been shown to contribute to Treg cell dysfunction. FOXP3 mutations in humans cause lethal fulminant systemic autoinflammation (IPEX syndrome). However, it remains unclear to what degree Treg cell dysfunction is contributing to the pathophysiology of common autoimmune diseases. In this Review, we discuss the origins of Treg cells in the periphery and the multilayered mechanisms by which Treg cells are induced, as well as the FOXP3-dependent and FOXP3-independent cellular programmes that maintain the suppressive function of Treg cells in humans and mice. Further, we examine evidence for Treg cell dysfunction in the context of common autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease, systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomokazu S Sumida
- Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Nardos T Cheru
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - David A Hafler
- Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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Zhou W, Kawashima S, Ishino T, Kawase K, Ueda Y, Yamashita K, Watanabe T, Kawazu M, Dansako H, Suzuki Y, Nishikawa H, Inozume T, Nagasaki J, Togashi Y. Stem-like progenitor and terminally differentiated T FH-like CD4 + T cell exhaustion in the tumor microenvironment. Cell Rep 2024; 43:113797. [PMID: 38363680 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.113797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Immune checkpoint inhibitors exert clinical efficacy against various types of cancer through reinvigoration of exhausted CD8+ T cells that attack cancer cells directly in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Using single-cell sequencing and mouse models, we show that CXCL13, highly expressed in tumor-infiltrating exhausted CD8+ T cells, induces CD4+ follicular helper T (TFH) cell infiltration, contributing to anti-tumor immunity. Furthermore, a part of the TFH cells in the TME exhibits cytotoxicity and directly attacks major histocompatibility complex-II-expressing tumors. TFH-like cytotoxic CD4+ T cells have high LAG-3/BLIMP1 and low TCF1 expression without self-renewal ability, whereas non-cytotoxic TFH cells express low LAG-3/BLIMP1 and high TCF1 with self-renewal ability, closely resembling the relationship between terminally differentiated and stem-like progenitor exhaustion in CD8+ T cells, respectively. Our findings provide deep insights into TFH-like CD4+ T cell exhaustion with helper progenitor and cytotoxic differentiated functions, mediating anti-tumor immunity orchestrally with CD8+ T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhao Zhou
- Department of Tumor Microenvironment, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama 700-8558, Japan; Department of Immunology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan; Department of Urology Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, China
| | - Shusuke Kawashima
- Department of Dermatology, Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba 260-8670, Japan; Chiba Cancer Center, Research Institute, Division of Cell Therapy, Chiba 260-8717, Japan
| | - Takamasa Ishino
- Department of Tumor Microenvironment, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama 700-8558, Japan; Chiba Cancer Center, Research Institute, Division of Cell Therapy, Chiba 260-8717, Japan; Department of Gastroenterology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Katsushige Kawase
- Chiba Cancer Center, Research Institute, Division of Cell Therapy, Chiba 260-8717, Japan; Department of Otorhinolaryngology/Head & Neck Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Youki Ueda
- Department of Tumor Microenvironment, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | | | - Tomofumi Watanabe
- Department of Tumor Microenvironment, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama 700-8558, Japan; Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama 700-0932, Japan
| | - Masahito Kawazu
- Chiba Cancer Center, Research Institute, Division of Cell Therapy, Chiba 260-8717, Japan
| | - Hiromichi Dansako
- Department of Tumor Microenvironment, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Yutaka Suzuki
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Kashiwa 277-8568, Japan
| | - Hiroyoshi Nishikawa
- Department of Immunology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan; Division of Cancer Immunology, National Cancer Center, Research Institute/Exploratory Oncology Research and Clinical Trial Center (EPOC), Tokyo 104-0045, Kashiwa 277-8577, Japan
| | - Takashi Inozume
- Department of Dermatology, Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba 260-8670, Japan; Chiba Cancer Center, Research Institute, Division of Cell Therapy, Chiba 260-8717, Japan
| | - Joji Nagasaki
- Department of Tumor Microenvironment, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama 700-8558, Japan; Chiba Cancer Center, Research Institute, Division of Cell Therapy, Chiba 260-8717, Japan.
| | - Yosuke Togashi
- Department of Tumor Microenvironment, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama 700-8558, Japan; Chiba Cancer Center, Research Institute, Division of Cell Therapy, Chiba 260-8717, Japan; Division of Cancer Immunology, National Cancer Center, Research Institute/Exploratory Oncology Research and Clinical Trial Center (EPOC), Tokyo 104-0045, Kashiwa 277-8577, Japan.
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Zhang XS, Zhou HC, Wei P, Chen L, Ma WH, Ding L, Liang SC, Chen BD. Combined TIM-3 and PD-1 blockade restrains hepatocellular carcinoma development by facilitating CD4+ and CD8+ T cell-mediated antitumor immune responses. World J Gastrointest Oncol 2023; 15:2138-2149. [PMID: 38173440 PMCID: PMC10758641 DOI: 10.4251/wjgo.v15.i12.2138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) targeting programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) and T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-containing protein 3 (TIM-3) are beneficial to the resumption of anti-tumor immunity response and hold extreme potential as efficient therapies for certain malignancies. However, ICIs with a single target exhibit poor overall response rate in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients due to the complex pathological mechanisms of HCC. AIM To investigate the effects of combined TIM-3 and PD-1 blockade on tumor development in an HCC mouse model, aiming to identify more effective immunotherapies and provide more treatment options for HCC patients. METHODS The levels of PD-1 and TIM-3 on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from tumor tissues, ascites, and matched adjacent tissues from HCC patients were determined with flow cytometry. An HCC xenograft mouse model was established and treated with anti-TIM-3 monoclonal antibody (mAb) and/or anti-PD-1 mAb. Tumor growth in each group was measured. Hematoxylin and eosin staining and immunohistochemical staining were used to evaluate T cell infiltration in tumors. The percentage of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in tissue samples from mice was tested with flow cytometry. The percentages of PD-1+CD8+, TIM-3+CD8+, and PD-1+TIM-3+ CD8+ T cells was accessed by flow cytometry. The levels of the cytokines including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-10 in tumor tissues were gauged with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. RESULTS We confirmed that PD-1 and TIM-3 expression was substantially upregulated in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells isolated from tumor tissues and ascites of HCC patients. TIM-3 mAb and PD-1 mAb treatment both reduced tumor volume and weight, while combined blockade had more substantial anti-tumor effects than individual treatment. Then we showed that combined therapy increased T cell infiltration into tumor tissues, and downregulated PD-1 and TIM-3 expression on CD8+ T cells in tumor tissues. Moreover, combined treatment facilitated the production of T cell effector cytokines TNF-α and IFN-γ, and reduced the production of immunosuppressive cytokines IL-10 and IL-6 in tumor tissues. Thus, we implicated that combined blockade could ameliorate T cell exhaustion in HCC mouse model. CONCLUSION Combined TIM-3 and PD-1 blockade restrains HCC development by facilitating CD4+ and CD8+ T cell-mediated antitumor immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu-Sheng Zhang
- School of Clinical Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Hong-Cai Zhou
- School of Clinical Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Peng Wei
- School of Clinical Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Long Chen
- School of Clinical Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Wei-Hu Ma
- School of Clinical Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Lin Ding
- School of Clinical Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Shi-Cai Liang
- School of Clinical Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
| | - Ben-Dong Chen
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
- Hepatobiliary Pancreatic Surgical, Ningxia Hepatobiliary Pancreatic Surgical Diseases Clinical Research Center, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China
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Martynchyk A, Chowdhury R, Hawkes EA, Keane C. Prognostic Markers within the Tumour Microenvironment in Classical Hodgkin Lymphoma. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:5217. [PMID: 37958391 PMCID: PMC10649036 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15215217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Classical Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL) accounts for 0.4% of all new cancer cases globally. Despite high cure rates with standard treatment, approximately 15% of patients still experience relapsed or refractory (RR) disease, and many of these eventually die from lymphoma-related causes. Exciting new targeted agents such as anti-PD-1 agents and brentuximab vedotin have changed the therapeutic paradigm beyond chemotherapy and radiotherapy alone. Advances in understanding of the molecular biology are providing insights in the context of novel therapies. The signature histology of cHL requires the presence of scant malignant Hodgkin Reed-Sternberg cells (HRSCs) surrounded by a complex immune-rich tumour microenvironment (TME). The TME cellular composition strongly influences outcomes, yet knowledge of the precise characteristics of TME cells and their interactions with HRSCs is evolving. Novel high-throughput technologies and single-cell sequencing allow deeper analyses of the TME and mechanisms elicited by HRSCs to propagate growth and avoid immune response. In this review, we explore the evolution of knowledge on the prognostic role of immune cells within the TME and provide an up-to-date overview of emerging prognostic data on cHL from new technologies that are starting to unwind the complexity of the cHL TME and provide translational insights into how to improve therapy in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arina Martynchyk
- Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research & Wellness Centre, Austin Health, 145 Studley Rd., Heidelberg, VIC 3084, Australia; (A.M.); (E.A.H.)
| | - Rakin Chowdhury
- Princess Alexandra Hospital, 199 Ipswich Rd., Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia;
- Frazer Institute, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Eliza A. Hawkes
- Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research & Wellness Centre, Austin Health, 145 Studley Rd., Heidelberg, VIC 3084, Australia; (A.M.); (E.A.H.)
- School of Public Health & Preventive Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Rd., Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia
| | - Colm Keane
- Princess Alexandra Hospital, 199 Ipswich Rd., Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia;
- Frazer Institute, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
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5
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Bergantini L, Pianigiani T, d'Alessandro M, Gangi S, Cekorja B, Bargagli E, Cameli P. The effect of anti-IL5 monoclonal antibodies on regulatory and effector T cells in severe eosinophilic asthma. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 166:115385. [PMID: 37651801 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Biological treatments have redesigned the clinical management of severe eosinophilic asthmatic (SA) patients. Despite emerging evidence supporting the role of natural Killer (NK), and T regulatory cells (Treg) in the pathogenesis of asthma, no data is available on the effects of anti-IL5/IL5R therapies on these cell subsets. METHODS We prospectively enrolled fourteen SA patients treated with benralizumab (n = 7) or mepolizumab (n = 7) and compared them with healthy controls (HC) (n = 11) and mild to moderate asthmatic (MM) patients (n = 9). Clinical parameters were collected at baseline (T0) and during follow-up. Cellular analysis, including the analysis of T/NK cell subsets, was determined through multicolor flow cytometry. RESULTS At T0, SA patients showed higher percentages of CD4 TEM (33.3 ± 17.9 HC, 42.6 ± 16.6 MM and 66.1 ± 19.7 in SA; p < 0.0001) than HC and MM patients. With different timing, the two drugs induce a reduction of CD4 TEM ( 76 ± 19 T0; 43 ± 14 T1; 45 ± 23 T6; 62 ± 18 at T24; p < 0.0001 for mepolizumab and 55 ± 21 T0; 55 ± 22 T1; 43 ± 14 T6; 27 ± 12 at T24; p < 0.0001 for benralizumab) and an increase of Treg cells (1.2 ± 1.3 T0; 5.1 ± 2.5 T1; 6.3 ± 3.4 T6; 8.4 ± 4.6 at T24; p < 0.0001 for mepolizumab and 3.4 ± 1.7 T0; 1.9 ± 0.8 T1; 1.9 ± 1 T6; 5.1 ± 2.4 at T24; p < 0.0001 for benralizumab). The change of CD56dim PD-1+ significantly correlated with FEV1% (r = - 0.32; p < 0.01), while Treg expressing PD-1 correlates with the use of oral steroids ( r = 0.36 p = 0.0008) and ACT score (r = 0.36 p = 0.0008) p < 0.001) CONCLUSIONS: Beyond the clinical improvement, anti-IL-5 treatment induces a rebalancing of Treg and T effector cells in patients with SA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Bergantini
- Respiratory Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University Hospital of Siena (Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Senese, AOUS), Viale Bracci, 53100 Siena, Italy.
| | - Tommaso Pianigiani
- Respiratory Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University Hospital of Siena (Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Senese, AOUS), Viale Bracci, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Miriana d'Alessandro
- Respiratory Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University Hospital of Siena (Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Senese, AOUS), Viale Bracci, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Sara Gangi
- Respiratory Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University Hospital of Siena (Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Senese, AOUS), Viale Bracci, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Behar Cekorja
- Respiratory Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University Hospital of Siena (Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Senese, AOUS), Viale Bracci, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Elena Bargagli
- Respiratory Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University Hospital of Siena (Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Senese, AOUS), Viale Bracci, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Paolo Cameli
- Respiratory Disease Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University Hospital of Siena (Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Senese, AOUS), Viale Bracci, 53100 Siena, Italy
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Xie J, Huang H, Li X, Ouyang L, Wang L, Liu D, Wei X, Tan P, Tu P, Hu Z. The Role of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Cancer Immunotherapy: Current Status and Future Directions. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2023; 51:1627-1651. [PMID: 37638827 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x2350074x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an important role in the development of tumors. Immunoregulatory cells and cytokines facilitate cancer cells to avoid immune surveillance. Overexpression of immune checkpoint molecules such as CTLA-4 and PD-1/PD-L1 inhibits immune function and enables cancer cells to avoid clearance by the immune system. Thus, minimizing tumor immunosuppression could be an important strategy for cancer therapy. Currently, many immune checkpoint-targeted drugs, such as PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors, have been approved for marketing and have shown unique advantages in the clinical treatment of cancers. The concept of "strengthening resistance to eliminate pathogenic factors" in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is consistent with the immunotherapy of cancer. According to previous studies, the role of TCM in tumor immunotherapy is mainly associated with the positive regulation of natural killer cells, CD8/CD4 T cells, dendritic cells, M2 macrophages, interleukin-2, tumor necrosis factor-[Formula: see text], and IFN-[Formula: see text], as well as with the negative regulation of Tregs, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts, PD-1/PD-L1, transforming growth factor-[Formula: see text], and tumor necrosis factor-[Formula: see text]. This paper summarizes the current research on the effect of TCM targeting the TME, and further introduces the research progress on studying the effects of TCM on immune checkpoints. Modern pharmacological studies have demonstrated that TCM can directly or indirectly affect the TME by inhibiting the overexpression of immune checkpoint molecules and enhancing the efficacy of tumor immunotherapy. TCM with immunomodulatory stimulation could be the key factor to achieve benefits from immunotherapy for patients with non-inflammatory, or "cold", tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxin Xie
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
- Modern Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Huiming Huang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
- Modern Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Xingxing Li
- Dongfang Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100078, P. R. China
| | - Lishan Ouyang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
- Modern Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Longyan Wang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
- Modern Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Dongxiao Liu
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
- Modern Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Xuejiao Wei
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
- Modern Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Peng Tan
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
- Modern Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Pengfei Tu
- Modern Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Zhongdong Hu
- Modern Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
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Jenkins E, Whitehead T, Fellermeyer M, Davis SJ, Sharma S. The current state and future of T-cell exhaustion research. OXFORD OPEN IMMUNOLOGY 2023; 4:iqad006. [PMID: 37554723 PMCID: PMC10352049 DOI: 10.1093/oxfimm/iqad006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
'Exhaustion' is a term used to describe a state of native and redirected T-cell hypo-responsiveness resulting from persistent antigen exposure during chronic viral infections or cancer. Although a well-established phenotype across mice and humans, exhaustion at the molecular level remains poorly defined and inconsistent across the literature. This is, in part, due to an overreliance on surface receptors to define these cells and explain exhaustive behaviours, an incomplete understanding of how exhaustion arises, and a lack of clarity over whether exhaustion is the same across contexts, e.g. chronic viral infections versus cancer. With the development of systems-based genetic approaches such as single-cell RNA-seq and CRISPR screens applied to in vivo data, we are moving closer to a consensus view of exhaustion, although understanding how it arises remains challenging given the difficulty in manipulating the in vivo setting. Accordingly, producing and studying exhausted T-cells ex vivo are burgeoning, allowing experiments to be conducted at scale up and with high throughput. Here, we first review what is currently known about T-cell exhaustion and how it's being studied. We then discuss how improvements in their method of isolation/production and examining the impact of different microenvironmental signals and cell interactions have now become an active area of research. Finally, we discuss what the future holds for the analysis of this physiological condition and, given the diversity of ways in which exhausted cells are now being generated, propose the adoption of a unified approach to clearly defining exhaustion using a set of metabolic-, epigenetic-, transcriptional-, and activation-based phenotypic markers, that we call 'M.E.T.A'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Jenkins
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, UK
| | - Toby Whitehead
- Medical Research Council Human Immunology Unit, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Martin Fellermeyer
- Medical Research Council Human Immunology Unit, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Simon J Davis
- Medical Research Council Human Immunology Unit, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Sumana Sharma
- Medical Research Council Human Immunology Unit, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
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8
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Nisnboym M, Vincze SR, Xiong Z, Sneiderman CT, Raphael RA, Li B, Jaswal AP, Sever RE, Day KE, LaToche JD, Foley LM, Karimi H, Hitchens TK, Agnihotri S, Hu B, Rajasundaram D, Anderson CJ, Blumenthal DT, Pearce TM, Uttam S, Nedrow JR, Panigrahy A, Pollack IF, Lieberman FS, Drappatz J, Raphael I, Edwards WB, Kohanbash G. Immuno-PET Imaging of CD69 Visualizes T-Cell Activation and Predicts Survival Following Immunotherapy in Murine Glioblastoma. CANCER RESEARCH COMMUNICATIONS 2023; 3:1173-1188. [PMID: 37426447 PMCID: PMC10324623 DOI: 10.1158/2767-9764.crc-22-0434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and malignant primary brain tumor in adults. Immunotherapy may be promising for the treatment of some patients with GBM; however, there is a need for noninvasive neuroimaging techniques to predict immunotherapeutic responses. The effectiveness of most immunotherapeutic strategies requires T-cell activation. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate an early marker of T-cell activation, CD69, for its use as an imaging biomarker of response to immunotherapy for GBM. Herein, we performed CD69 immunostaining on human and mouse T cells following in vitro activation and post immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) in an orthotopic syngeneic mouse glioma model. CD69 expression on tumor-infiltrating leukocytes was assessed using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data from patients with recurrent GBM receiving ICI. Radiolabeled CD69 Ab PET/CT imaging (CD69 immuno-PET) was performed on GBM-bearing mice longitudinally to quantify CD69 and its association with survival following immunotherapy. We show CD69 expression is upregulated upon T-cell activation and on tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) in response to immunotherapy. Similarly, scRNA-seq data demonstrated elevated CD69 on TILs from patients with ICI-treated recurrent GBM as compared with TILs from control cohorts. CD69 immuno-PET studies showed a significantly higher tracer uptake in the tumors of ICI-treated mice compared with controls. Importantly, we observed a positive correlation between survival and CD69 immuno-PET signals in immunotherapy-treated animals and established a trajectory of T-cell activation by virtue of CD69-immuno-PET measurements. Our study supports the potential use of CD69 immuno-PET as an immunotherapy response assessment imaging tool for patients with GBM. Significance Immunotherapy may hold promise for the treatment of some patients with GBM. There is a need to assess therapy responsiveness to allow the continuation of effective treatment in responders and to avoid ineffective treatment with potential adverse effects in the nonresponders. We demonstrate that noninvasive PET/CT imaging of CD69 may allow early detection of immunotherapy responsiveness in patients with GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Nisnboym
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Neurology, Tel-Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Sarah R. Vincze
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Zujian Xiong
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Chaim T. Sneiderman
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Rebecca A. Raphael
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Cancer Biology Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Bo Li
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Ambika P. Jaswal
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - ReidAnn E. Sever
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Kathryn E. Day
- In Vivo Imaging Facility, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Joseph D. LaToche
- In Vivo Imaging Facility, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Lesley M. Foley
- In Vivo Imaging Facility, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Hanieh Karimi
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - T. Kevin Hitchens
- In Vivo Imaging Facility, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Sameer Agnihotri
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Baoli Hu
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Dhivyaa Rajasundaram
- Division of Health Informatics, Department of Pediatrics, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Deborah T. Blumenthal
- Neuro-oncology Division, Tel-Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Thomas M. Pearce
- Division of Neuropathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Shikhar Uttam
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Cancer Biology Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Jessie R. Nedrow
- In Vivo Imaging Facility, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Ashok Panigrahy
- Department of Radiology, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Ian F. Pollack
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Frank S. Lieberman
- Neuro-oncology Program, Division of Hematology/Oncology, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Jan Drappatz
- Neuro-oncology Program, Division of Hematology/Oncology, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Itay Raphael
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Wilson B. Edwards
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - Gary Kohanbash
- Department of Neurological Surgery, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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9
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del Rio ML, de Juan CYD, Roncador G, Caleiras E, Álvarez-Esteban R, Pérez-Simón JA, Rodriguez-Barbosa JI. Genetic deletion of HVEM in a leukemia B cell line promotes a preferential increase of PD-1 - stem cell-like T cells over PD-1 + T cells curbing tumor progression. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1113858. [PMID: 37033927 PMCID: PMC10076739 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1113858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A high frequency of mutations affecting the gene encoding Herpes Virus Entry Mediator (HVEM, TNFRSF14) is a common clinical finding in a wide variety of human tumors, including those of hematological origin. METHODS We have addressed how HVEM expression on A20 leukemia cells influences tumor survival and its involvement in the modulation of the anti-tumor immune responses in a parental into F1 mouse tumor model of hybrid resistance by knocking-out HVEM expression. HVEM WT or HVEM KO leukemia cells were then injected intravenously into semiallogeneic F1 recipients and the extent of tumor dissemination was evaluated. RESULTS The loss of HVEM expression on A20 leukemia cells led to a significant increase of lymphoid and myeloid tumor cell infiltration curbing tumor progression. NK cells and to a lesser extent NKT cells and monocytes were the predominant innate populations contributing to the global increase of immune infiltrates in HVEM KO tumors compared to that present in HVEM KO tumors. In the overall increase of the adaptive T cell immune infiltrates, the stem cell-like PD-1- T cells progenitors and the effector T cell populations derived from them were more prominently present than terminally differentiated PD-1+ T cells. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that the PD-1- T cell subpopulation is likely to be a more relevant contributor to tumor rejection than the PD-1+ T cell subpopulation. These findings highlight the role of co-inhibitory signals delivered by HVEM upon engagement of BTLA on T cells and NK cells, placing HVEM/BTLA interaction in the spotlight as a novel immune checkpoint for the reinforcement of the anti-tumor responses in malignancies of hematopoietic origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria-Luisa del Rio
- Transplantation Immunobiology and Immunotherapy Section, Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Leon, Leon, Spain
| | - Carla Yago-Diez de Juan
- Transplantation Immunobiology and Immunotherapy Section, Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Leon, Leon, Spain
| | - Giovanna Roncador
- Monoclonal Antibodies Unit, National Center for Cancer Research (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Eduardo Caleiras
- Histopathology Core Unit, National Center for Cancer Research (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ramón Álvarez-Esteban
- Section of Statistics and Operational Research, Department of Economy and Statistics, University of Leon, Leon, Spain
| | - José Antonio Pérez-Simón
- Department of Hematology, University Hospital Virgen del Rocio / Institute of Biomedicine (IBIS / CSIC), Sevilla, Spain
| | - Jose-Ignacio Rodriguez-Barbosa
- Transplantation Immunobiology and Immunotherapy Section, Institute of Molecular Biology, University of Leon, Leon, Spain
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10
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Mao L. Thymosin alpha 1 - Reimagine its broader applications in the immuno-oncology era. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 117:109952. [PMID: 36871535 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.109952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
Thymosin alpha 1 (Tα1) is a highly conserved 28 amino-acid peptide naturally occurring in the thymus and plays critical roles in T cell maturity and differentiation. Its synthetic form, thymalfasin, has been approved by various regulatory agencies in the treatment of hepatitis B viral infection and as an enhancer of vaccine response in immune-compromised populations. In China, it has also widely utilized in patients with cancer and severe infections, as well as the emergency use during (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)SARS and COVID-19 pandemic as an immune-regulator. Recent studies showed that Tα1 could significantly improve overall survival (OS) in patients with surgically resectable non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and liver cancers in the adjuvant setting. For patients with locally advanced, unresectable NSCLC, Tα1 could significantly reduce chemoradiation-induced lymphopenia, pneumonia, and trending improvement of OS. Preclinical evidence are emerging to demonstrate that Tα1 may augment efficacy of cancer chemotherapy by reversing efferocytosis-induced M2 polarization of macrophages via activation of a TLR7/SHIP1 axis and enhancing anti-tumor immunity by turning "cold-tumors" to "hot-tumors"; a protective role in reducing colitis caused by immune check-point inhibitors (ICIs). Potential enhancement of ICIs' clinical efficacies has also been indicated. ICIs have transformed ways treating patients with cancer but limitations such as relatively low response rates and certain safety issues remains. Given the roles of Tα1 in regulating cellular immunities and exceptional safety profiles demonstrated in decades clinical uses, we believe that it is plausible to explore implications of Tα1 the immune-oncology setting by combining with ICI-based therapeutic strategies. Background Activities of Tα1. Tα1 is a biological response modifier which activates various cells in the immune system [1-3]. Tα1 is therefore expected to have clinical benefits in disorders where immune responses are impaired or ineffective. These disorders include acute and chronic infections, cancers, and vaccine non-responsiveness. In severe sepsis, for example, sepsis-induced immunosuppression is increasingly recognized as the overriding immune dysfunction in these vulnerable patients [4] and there is now agreement that many patients with severe sepsis survive the first critical hours of the syndrome but eventually die later due to patients' immunosuppression which make the system difficulty to fight the primary bacterial infection, decreased resistance to secondary nosocomial infections, and reactivation of viral infections [5]. Tα1 has been shown to restore immune functions and help to reduce mortality in patients with severe sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Mao
- SciClone Pharmaceuticals, 381 Central Huaihai Road, Shanghai 311100, China.
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11
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Yao Y, Gu L, Zuo Z, Wang D, Zhou T, Xu X, Yang L, Huang X, Wang L. Necroptosis-related lncRNAs: Combination of bulk and single-cell sequencing reveals immune landscape alteration and a novel prognosis stratification approach in lung adenocarcinoma. Front Oncol 2022; 12:1010976. [PMID: 36605426 PMCID: PMC9808398 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.1010976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Necroptosis, which is recently recognized as a form of programmed cell death, plays a critical role in cancer biology, including tumorigenesis and cancer immunology. It was recognized not only to defend against tumor progression by suppressing adaptive immune responses but also to promote tumorigenesis and cancer metastasis after recruiting inflammatory responses. Thus the crucial role of necrosis in tumorigenesis has attracted increasing attention. Due to the heterogeneity of the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD), the prognosis and the response to immunotherapy vary distinctly across patients, underscoring the need for a stratification algorithm for clinical practice. Although previous studies have formulated the crucial role of lncRNAs in tumorigenicity, the relationship between necroptosis-related lncRNAs, TIME, and the prognosis of patients with LUAD was still elusive. In the current study, a robust and novel prognostic stratification model based on Necroptosis-related LncRNA Risk Scoring (NecroLRS) and clinicopathological parameters was constructed and systemically validated in both internal and external validation cohorts. The expression profile of four key lncRNAs was further validated by qRT-PCR in 4 human LUAD cell lines. And a novel immune landscape alteration was observed between NecroLRS-High and -Low patients. To further elucidate the mechanism of necroptosis in the prognosis of LUAD from a single-cell perspective, a novel stratification algorithm based on K-means clustering was introduced to extract both malignant and NecroLRS-High subsets from epithelial cells. And the necroptosis-related immune infiltration landscape and developmental trajectory were investigated respectively. Critically, NecroLRS was found to be positively correlated with neutrophil enrichment, inflammatory immune response, and malignant phenotypes of LUAD. In addition, novel ligand-receptor pairs between NecroLRS-High cells and other immunocytes were investigated and optimal therapeutic compounds were screened to provide potential targets for future studies. Taken together, our findings reveal emerging mechanisms of necroptosis-induced immune microenvironment alteration on the deteriorative prognosis and may contribute to improved prognosis and individualized precision therapy for patients with LUAD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Lehe Yang
- *Correspondence: Lehe Yang, ; Xiaoying Huang, ; Liangxing Wang,
| | - Xiaoying Huang
- *Correspondence: Lehe Yang, ; Xiaoying Huang, ; Liangxing Wang,
| | - Liangxing Wang
- *Correspondence: Lehe Yang, ; Xiaoying Huang, ; Liangxing Wang,
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12
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Guo H, Yang J, Wang H, Liu X, Liu Y, Zhou K. Reshaping the tumor microenvironment: The versatility of immunomodulatory drugs in B-cell neoplasms. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1017990. [PMID: 36311747 PMCID: PMC9596992 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1017990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunomodulatory drugs (IMiDs) such as thalidomide, lenalidomide and pomalidomide are antitumor compounds that have direct tumoricidal activity and indirect effects mediated by multiple types of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). IMiDs have shown remarkable therapeutic efficacy in a set of B-cell neoplasms including multiple myeloma, B-cell lymphomas and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. More recently, the advent of immunotherapy has revolutionized the treatment of these B-cell neoplasms. However, the success of immunotherapy is restrained by immunosuppressive signals and dysfunctional immune cells in the TME. Due to the pleiotropic immunobiological properties, IMiDs have shown to generate synergetic effects in preclinical models when combined with monoclonal antibodies, immune checkpoint inhibitors or CAR-T cell therapy, some of which were successfully translated to the clinic and lead to improved responses for both first-line and relapsed/refractory settings. Mechanistically, despite cereblon (CRBN), an E3 ubiquitin ligase, is considered as considered as the major molecular target responsible for the antineoplastic activities of IMiDs, the exact mechanisms of action for IMiDs-based TME re-education remain largely unknown. This review presents an overview of IMiDs in regulation of immune cell function and their utilization in potentiating efficacy of immunotherapies across multiple types of B-cell neoplasms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Keshu Zhou
- Department of Hematology, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University & Henan Cancer Hospital, Zhengzhou, China
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Xu L, Yang Z, Zhao Q, Feng H, Kuang J, Liu Z, Chen L, Zhan L, Yan J, Cai W, Qiu W. Effect of FOXP2 transcription factor on immune infiltration of thyroid cancer and its potential clinical value. Front Immunol 2022; 13:982812. [PMID: 36203616 PMCID: PMC9531268 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.982812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The clinical outcomes are not always favorable in certain thyroid cancer patients. The effect of Forkhead-box family on immune cells infiltration and tumor microenvironment in thyroid cancer was explored. The role of FOXP2 in tumor invasion and recurrence was investigated consequently. Methods TIMER and GEPIA were firstly employed to compare FOXPs expression in normal and cancer tissues from multiple human cancers. The results from database were confirmed by quantitative Real Time-PCR and Western blot in matched thyroid cancer and adjacent normal tissues, in addition to a panel of thyroid cancer cell lines and normal thyroid cell. GEPIA platform was employed to discover the possibility of FOXPs as prognostic indicator. TISIBD and UACLCAN were then employed to estimate the influence of FOXPs on lymph node metastasis and tumor staging. GEPIA analysis was initially employed to analyze correlation of FOXPs and tumor immune infiltrating cells, and TIMER dataset was then included for standardization according to tumor purity. Result Different member of FOXPs showed divergence in expression in various cancer tissues. Lower FOXP1, FOXP2 and higher FOXP3, FOXP4 levels could be identified in thyroid cancer tissues when compared with matched normal tissue. There was an inverse correlation between FOXP2, FOXP4 and immune invasion, whereas FOXP1 and FOXP3 were positively correlated. FOXPs showed remarkable correlations with multiply immune cells. More importantly, only FOXP2 showed the significant effect on recurrence and tumor staging. Conclusion As immune regulatory factor, the reduction of FOXP2 may affect tumor microenvironments and immune cells infiltration, enhance tumor immune escape, and promote recurrence of thyroid cancer. FOXP2 could be a new potential diagnostic and prognostic marker.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jiqi Yan
- *Correspondence: Jiqi Yan, ; Wei Cai, ; Weihua Qiu,
| | - Wei Cai
- *Correspondence: Jiqi Yan, ; Wei Cai, ; Weihua Qiu,
| | - Weihua Qiu
- *Correspondence: Jiqi Yan, ; Wei Cai, ; Weihua Qiu,
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14
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Kagoya Y, Togashi Y. Introduction: Redefining T-Cell Exhaustion Special Issue. Int Immunol 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxac043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Kagoya
- Division of Immune Response, Aichi Cancer Center Research Institute, 1-1 Kanokoden , Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8681, Japan
- Division of Cellular Oncology, Department of Cancer Diagnostics and Therapeutics, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine , 65 Tsurumai, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
| | - Yosuke Togashi
- Department of Tumor Microenvironment, Okayama University, Graduate School of Medicine Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences , Okayama 700-8558, Japan
- Chiba Cancer Center, Research Institute , Chiba 260-8717, Japan
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