1
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Tao Z, Feng Y, Wang J, Zhou Y, Yang J. Global Scientific Trends in Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy from 2000 to 2023: A Bibliometric and Visual Analysis. Blood Purif 2024; 53:436-464. [PMID: 38310853 DOI: 10.1159/000536312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/06/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) is one of the most widely used blood purification and organ support methods in the ICU. However, the development process, the current status, hotspots, and future trends of CRRT remain unclear. METHOD The WoSCC database was used to analyze CRRT research evolution and theme trends. VOSviewer was used to construct coauthorship, co-occurrence, co-citation, and network visualizations. CiteSpace is used to detect bursts for co-occurrence items. Several important subtopics were reviewed and discussed in more detail. RESULTS Global publications increased from 56 in 2000 to 398 in 2023, a 710.71% increase. Blood Purification published the most manuscripts, followed by the International Journal of Artificial Organs. The USA, the San Bortolo Hospital, and Bellomo were the most productive and impactful institution, country, and author, respectively. Based on co-occurrence cluster analysis, five clusters emerged: (1) clinical applications and management of CRRT; (2) sepsis and CRRT; (3) CRRT anticoagulant management; (4) CRRT and antibiotic pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics; and (5) comparison of CRRT and intermittent hemodialysis. COVID-19, initiation, ECOMO, cefepime, guidelines, cardiogenic shock, biomarker, and outcome were the latest high-frequency keywords or strongest bursts, indicating the emerging frontiers of CRRT. CONCLUSIONS There has been widespread publication and citation of CRRT research in the past 2 decades. We provide an overview of current trends, global collaboration patterns, basic knowledge, research hotspots, and emerging frontiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- ZhongBin Tao
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - YanDong Feng
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Jie Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, The Second People's Hospital of Gansu Province, Lanzhou, China
| | - YongKang Zhou
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - JunQiang Yang
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
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2
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Kanji S, Roger C, Taccone FS, Muller L. Practical considerations for individualizing drug dosing in critically ill adults receiving renal replacement therapy. Pharmacotherapy 2023; 43:1194-1205. [PMID: 37491976 DOI: 10.1002/phar.2858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Critically ill patients with sepsis admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) often present with or develop renal dysfunction requiring renal replacement therapy (RRT) in addition to antimicrobial therapy. While early and appropriate antimicrobials for sepsis have been associated with an increased probability of survival, adequate dosing is also required in these patients. Adequate dosing of antimicrobials refers to dosing strategies that achieve serum drug levels at the site of infection that are able to provide a microbiological and/or clinical response while avoiding toxicity from excessive antibiotic exposure. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is the recommended strategy to achieve this goal, however, TDM is not routinely available in all ICUs and for all antimicrobials. In the absence of TDM, clinicians are therefore required to make dosing decisions based on the clinical condition of the patient, the causative organism, the characteristics of RRT, and an understanding of the physicochemical properties of the antimicrobial. Pharmacokinetics (PK) of antimicrobials can be highly variable between critically ill patients and also within the same patient over the course of their ICU stay. The initiation of RRT, which can be in the form of intermittent hemodialysis, continuous, or prolonged intermittent therapy, further complicates the predictability of drug disposition. This variability highlights the need for individualized dosing. This review highlights the practical considerations for the clinician for antimicrobial dosing in critically ill patients receiving RRT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salmaan Kanji
- The Ottawa Hospital and Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Claire Roger
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Pain and Emergency Medicine, Nîmes University Hospital, Nîmes, France
- UR UM 103 IMAGINE, Faculty of Medicine, University of Montpellier, Nîmes, France
| | - Fabio Silvio Taccone
- Department of Intensive Care, Hôpital Universitaire de Bruxelles (HUB), Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Laurent Muller
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Pain and Emergency Medicine, Nîmes University Hospital, Nîmes, France
- UR UM 103 IMAGINE, Faculty of Medicine, University of Montpellier, Nîmes, France
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3
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El-Haffaf I, Guilhaumou R, Velly L, Marsot A. Impact of piperacillin unbound fraction variability on dosing recommendations in critically ill patients. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2023; 89:1502-1508. [PMID: 36445340 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.15619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
A common approach to assess the efficacy of piperacillin is to first measure the total concentration and afterwards apply a theoretical unbound fraction of 70% to obtain the unbound concentration. However, hypoalbuminemia is a common phenomenon in critically ill patients, resulting in variations in unbound fraction, therefore we aimed to simulate the impact of piperacillin unbound fraction fluctuations on the predictive performance of a population pharmacokinetic model and on the dosing recommendations of piperacillin. Unbound factors of 70%, 75%, 80% and 85% were applied to total concentrations of piperacillin administered by continuous infusion from an external dataset. A validated model was used for assessment of predictive performance and to estimate patient clearance. Dosing simulations were performed to evaluate target attainment. Variation in unbound fractions caused minimal impact on piperacillin clearance and target attainment but seemed to influence model validity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim El-Haffaf
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Université de Montréal, Pavillon Jean-Coutu, Montreal, Québec, Canada.,Laboratoire de Suivi Thérapeutique Pharmacologique et Pharmacocinétique, Faculty of Pharmacy, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Québec, Canada
| | - Romain Guilhaumou
- Service de Pharmacologie Clinique et Pharmacovigilance, Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Marseille, Marseille, France.,Institut de neurosciences des systèmes, Inserm UMR 1106, Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Lionel Velly
- Service d'anesthésie-réanimation, Hôpital de la Timone, Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Marseille et Institut de neurosciences de la Timone, CNRS, Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Amélie Marsot
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Université de Montréal, Pavillon Jean-Coutu, Montreal, Québec, Canada.,Laboratoire de Suivi Thérapeutique Pharmacologique et Pharmacocinétique, Faculty of Pharmacy, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Québec, Canada.,Centre de recherche, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Québec, Canada
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4
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Martínez-Casanova J, Esteve-Pitarch E, Colom-Codina H, Gumucio-Sanguino VD, Cobo-Sacristán S, Shaw E, Maisterra-Santos K, Sabater-Riera J, Pérez-Fernandez XL, Rigo-Bonnin R, Tubau-Quintano F, Carratalà J, Padullés-Zamora A. Predictive Factors of Piperacillin Exposure and the Impact on Target Attainment after Continuous Infusion Administration to Critically Ill Patients. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:antibiotics12030531. [PMID: 36978398 PMCID: PMC10044067 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12030531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Critically ill patients undergo significant pathophysiological changes that affect antibiotic pharmacokinetics. Piperacillin/tazobactam administered by continuous infusion (CI) improves pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) target attainment. This study aimed to characterize piperacillin PK after CI administration of piperacillin/tazobactam in critically ill adult patients with preserved renal function and to determine the empirical optimal dosing regimen. A total of 218 piperacillin concentrations from 106 patients were simultaneously analyzed through the population PK approach. A two-compartment linear model best described the data. Creatinine clearance (CLCR) estimated by CKD-EPI was the covariate, the most predictive factor of piperacillin clearance (CL) interindividual variability. The mean (relative standard error) parameter estimates for the final model were: CL: 12.0 L/h (6.03%); central and peripheral compartment distribution volumes: 20.7 L (8.94%) and 62.4 L (50.80%), respectively; intercompartmental clearance: 4.8 L/h (26.4%). For the PK/PD target of 100% fT>1×MIC, 12 g of piperacillin provide a probability of target attainment > 90% for MIC < 16 mg/L, regardless of CLCR, but higher doses are needed for MIC = 16 mg/L when CLCR > 100 mL/min. For 100% fT>4×MIC, the highest dose (24 g/24 h) was not sufficient to ensure adequate exposure, except for MICs of 1 and 4 mg/L. Our model can be used as a support tool for initial dose guidance and during therapeutic drug monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Martínez-Casanova
- Pharmacy Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Farmacoteràpia, Farmacogenètica i Tecnologia Farmacèutica, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Erika Esteve-Pitarch
- Pharmacy Department, Hospital Universitari de Tarragona Joan XXIII, 43005 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Helena Colom-Codina
- Farmacoteràpia, Farmacogenètica i Tecnologia Farmacèutica, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Physical Chemistry Department, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Sara Cobo-Sacristán
- Pharmacy Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Farmacoteràpia, Farmacogenètica i Tecnologia Farmacèutica, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Evelyn Shaw
- Infectious Diseases Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Epidemiologia de les Infeccions Bacterianes, Patologia Infecciosa i Transplantament, Institut d'Investigacio Biomedica de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Kristel Maisterra-Santos
- Critical Care Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Joan Sabater-Riera
- Critical Care Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Xosé L Pérez-Fernandez
- Critical Care Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Raül Rigo-Bonnin
- Clinical Laboratory Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Fe Tubau-Quintano
- Department of Microbiology, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge-IDIBELL, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Jordi Carratalà
- Infectious Diseases Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Campus Ciencias de la Salud de Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Ariadna Padullés-Zamora
- Pharmacy Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Farmacoteràpia, Farmacogenètica i Tecnologia Farmacèutica, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge, IDIBELL, 08907 Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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5
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Sumi CD, Roberts JA, Sime FB. Pharmacodynamic evaluation of intermittent versus extended and continuous infusions of piperacillin/tazobactam in a hollow-fibre infection model against Klebsiella pneumoniae-authors' response. J Antimicrob Chemother 2023; 78:854-857. [PMID: 36718049 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkad017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chandra Datta Sumi
- The University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research (UQCCR), Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jason A Roberts
- The University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research (UQCCR), Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Pharmacy and Intensive Care Medicine, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Herston Infectious Diseases Institute (HeIDI), Metro North Health, Brisbane, Australia.,Division of Anaesthesiology Critical Care Emergency and Pain Medicine, Nîmes University Hospital, University of Montpellier, Nîmes, France
| | - Fekade B Sime
- The University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research (UQCCR), Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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6
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Cutuli SL, Cascarano L, Lazzaro P, Tanzarella ES, Pintaudi G, Grieco DL, De Pascale G, Antonelli M. Antimicrobial Exposure in Critically Ill Patients with Sepsis-Associated Multi-Organ Dysfunction Requiring Extracorporeal Organ Support: A Narrative Review. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11020473. [PMID: 36838438 PMCID: PMC9965524 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11020473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Sepsis is a leading cause of disability and mortality worldwide. The pathophysiology of sepsis relies on the maladaptive host response to pathogens that fosters unbalanced organ crosstalk and induces multi-organ dysfunction, whose severity was directly associated with mortality. In septic patients, etiologic interventions aiming to reduce the pathogen load via appropriate antimicrobial therapy and the effective control of the source infection were demonstrated to improve clinical outcomes. Nonetheless, extracorporeal organ support represents a complementary intervention that may play a role in mitigating life-threatening complications caused by sepsis-associated multi-organ dysfunction. In this setting, an increasing amount of research raised concerns about the risk of suboptimal antimicrobial exposure in critically ill patients with sepsis, which may be worsened by the concomitant delivery of extracorporeal organ support. Accordingly, several strategies have been implemented to overcome this issue. In this narrative review, we discussed the pharmacokinetic features of antimicrobials and mechanisms that may favor drug removal during renal replacement therapy, coupled plasma filtration and absorption, therapeutic plasma exchange, hemoperfusion, extracorporeal CO2 removal and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. We also provided an overview of evidence-based strategies that may help the physician to safely prescribe effective antimicrobial doses in critically ill patients with sepsis-associated multi-organ dysfunction who receive extracorporeal organ support.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Lucio Cutuli
- Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Emergenza, Anestesiologiche e Della Rianimazione, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, L.go A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Universita’ Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-063-015-4490
| | - Laura Cascarano
- Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Emergenza, Anestesiologiche e Della Rianimazione, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, L.go A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Universita’ Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Paolo Lazzaro
- Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Emergenza, Anestesiologiche e Della Rianimazione, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, L.go A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Universita’ Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Eloisa Sofia Tanzarella
- Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Emergenza, Anestesiologiche e Della Rianimazione, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, L.go A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Universita’ Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriele Pintaudi
- Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Emergenza, Anestesiologiche e Della Rianimazione, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, L.go A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Universita’ Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Domenico Luca Grieco
- Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Emergenza, Anestesiologiche e Della Rianimazione, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, L.go A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Universita’ Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Gennaro De Pascale
- Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Emergenza, Anestesiologiche e Della Rianimazione, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, L.go A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Universita’ Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Massimo Antonelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Emergenza, Anestesiologiche e Della Rianimazione, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, L.go A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Universita’ Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, L.go F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy
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Piperacillin Population Pharmacokinetics and Dosing Regimen Optimization in Critically Ill Children Receiving Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2022; 66:e0113522. [PMID: 36342152 PMCID: PMC9764994 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01135-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We aimed to develop a piperacillin population pharmacokinetic (PK) model in critically ill children receiving continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) and to optimize dosing regimens. The piperacillin plasma concentration was quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography. Piperacillin PK was investigated using a nonlinear mixed-effect modeling approach. Monte Carlo simulations were performed to compute the optimal scheme of administration according to the target of 100% interdose interval time in which concentration is one to four times above the MIC (100% fT > 1 to 4× MIC). A total of 32 children with a median (interquartile range [IQR]) postnatal age of 2 years (0 to 11), body weight (BW) of 15 kg (6 to 38), and receiving CRRT were included. Concentration-time courses were best described by a one-compartment model with first-order elimination. BW and residual diuresis (Qu) explained some between-subject variabilities on volume of distribution (V), where [Formula: see text], and clearance (CL), where [Formula: see text], where CLpop and Vpop are 6.78 L/h and 55.0 L, respectively, normalized to a 70-kg subject and median residual diuresis of 0.06 mL/kg/h. Simulations with intermittent and continuous administrations for 4 typical patients with different rates of residual diuresis (0, 0.1, 0.25, and 0.5 mL/kg/h) showed that continuous infusions were appropriate to attain the PK target for patients with residual diuresis higher than 0.1 mL/kg/h according to BW and MIC, while for anuric patients, less frequent intermittent doses were mandatory to avoid accumulation. Optimal exposure to piperacillin in critically ill children on CRRT should be achieved by using continuous infusions with escalating doses for high-MIC bacteria, except for anuric patients who require less frequent intermittent doses.
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Selig DJ, DeLuca JP, Chung KK, Pruskowski KA, Livezey JR, Nadeau RJ, Por ED, Akers KS. Pharmacokinetics of piperacillin and tazobactam in critically Ill patients treated with continuous kidney replacement therapy: A mini-review and population pharmacokinetic analysis. J Clin Pharm Ther 2022; 47:1091-1102. [PMID: 35352374 PMCID: PMC9544041 DOI: 10.1111/jcpt.13657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE Timely and appropriate dosing of antibiotics is essential for the treatment of bacterial sepsis. Critically ill patients treated with continuous kidney replacement therapy (CKRT) often have physiologic derangements that affect pharmacokinetics (PK) of antibiotics and dosing may be challenging. We sought to aggregate previously published piperacillin and tazobactam (pip-tazo) pharmacokinetic data in critically ill patients undergoing CKRT to better understand pharmacokinetics of pip-tazo in this population and better inform dosing. METHODS The National Library of Medicine Database was searched for original research containing piperacillin or tazobactam clearance (CL) or volume of distribution (V) estimates in patients treated with CKRT. The search yielded 77 articles, of which 26 reported suitable estimates of CL or V. Of the 26 articles, 10 for piperacillin and 8 for tazobactam had complete information suitable for population pharmacokinetic modelling. Also included in the analysis was piperacillin and tazobactam PK data from 4 critically ill patients treated with CKRT in the Military Health System, 2 with burn and 2 without burn. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Median and range of literature reported PK parameters for piperacillin (CL 2.76 L/hr, 1.4-7.92 L/hr, V 31.2 L, 16.77-42.27 L) and tazobactam (CL 2.34 L/hr, 0.72-5.2 L/hr, V 36.6 L, 26.2-58.87 L) were highly consistent with population estimates (piperacillin CL 2.7 L/hr, 95%CI 1.99-3.41 L/hr, V 25.83 22.07-29.59 L, tazobactam CL 2.49 L/hr, 95%CI 1.55-3.44, V 30.62 95%CI 23.7-37.54). The proportion of patients meeting pre-defined pharmacodynamic (PD) targets (median 88.7, range 71%-100%) was high despite significant mortality (median 44%, range 35%-60%). High mortality was predicted by baseline severity of illness (median APACHE II score 23, range 21-33.25). Choice of lenient or strict PD targets (ie 100%fT >MIC or 100%fT >4XMIC) had the largest impact on probability of target attainment (PTA), whereas presence or intensity of CKRT had minimal impact on PTA. WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION Pip-tazo overexposure may be associated with increased mortality, although this is confounded by baseline severity of illness. Achieving adequate pip-tazo exposure is essential; however, risk of harm from overexposure should be considered when choosing a PD target and dose. If lenient PD targets are desired, doses of 2250-3375 mg every 6 h are reasonable for most patients receiving CKRT. However, if a strict PD target is desired, continuous infusion (at least 9000-13500 mg per day) may be required. However, some critically ill CKRT populations may need higher or lower doses and dosing strategies should be tailored to individuals based on all available clinical data including the specific critical care setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Selig
- Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Experimental Therapeutics, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Jesse P DeLuca
- Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Experimental Therapeutics, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Kevin K Chung
- Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Kaitlin A Pruskowski
- Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.,United States Army Institute of Surgical Research, US Army Burn Center, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Jeffrey R Livezey
- Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Robert J Nadeau
- Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Experimental Therapeutics, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Elaine D Por
- Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Experimental Therapeutics, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Kevin S Akers
- United States Army Institute of Surgical Research, US Army Burn Center, San Antonio, Texas, USA
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9
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Population Pharmacokinetics of Piperacillin and Tazobactam in Critically Ill Patients Receiving Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: an ASAP ECMO Study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65:e0143821. [PMID: 34460303 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01438-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Our study aimed to describe the population pharmacokinetics (PK) of piperacillin and tazobactam in patients on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), with and without renal replacement therapy (RRT). We also aimed to use dosing simulations to identify the optimal dosing strategy for these patient groups. Serial piperacillin and tazobactam plasma concentrations were measured with data analyzed using a population PK approach that included staged testing of patient and treatment covariates. Dosing simulations were conducted to identify the optimal dosing strategy that achieved piperacillin target exposures of 50% and 100% fraction of time free drug concentration is above MIC (%fT>MIC) and toxic exposures of greater than 360 mg/liter. The tazobactam target of percentage of time free concentrations of >2 mg/liter was also assessed. Twenty-seven patients were enrolled, of which 14 patients were receiving concurrent RRT. Piperacillin and tazobactam were both adequately described by two-compartment models, with body mass index, creatinine clearance, and RRT as significant predictors of PK. There were no substantial differences between observed PK parameters and published parameters from non-ECMO patients. Based on dosing simulations, a 4.5-g every 6 hours regimen administered over 4 hours achieves high probabilities of efficacy at a piperacillin MIC of 16 mg/liter while exposing patients to a <3% probability of toxic concentrations. In patients receiving ECMO and RRT, a frequency reduction to every 12 hours dosing lowers the probability of toxic concentrations, although this remains at 7 to 9%. In ECMO patients, piperacillin and tazobactam should be dosed in line with standard recommendations for the critically ill.
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10
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Antimicrobial Dose Reduction in Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy: Myth or Real Need? A Practical Approach for Guiding Dose Optimization of Novel Antibiotics. Clin Pharmacokinet 2021; 60:1271-1289. [PMID: 34125420 PMCID: PMC8505328 DOI: 10.1007/s40262-021-01040-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Acute kidney injury represents a common complication in critically ill patients affected by septic shock and in many cases continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) may be required. In this scenario, antimicrobial dose optimization is highly challenging as the extracorporeal circuit may cause several pharmacokinetic alterations, which add up to volume of distribution and clearance variations resulting from sepsis. Variations in CRRT settings (i.e. modality of solute removal, type of filter material, blood flow rate and effluent flow rate), coupled with the presence of residual and/or recovering renal function, may cause dynamic variations in the clearance of hydrophilic antimicrobials. This means that dose reduction may not always be needed. Nowadays, the lack of pharmacokinetic data for novel antimicrobials during CRRT limits evidence-based dose recommendations for critically ill patients in this setting, thus making available evidence hardly applicable in real-world scenarios. This review aims to summarize the major determinants involved in antimicrobial clearance, and the available pharmacokinetic studies performed during CRRT involving novel antibiotics used for the management of multidrug-resistant Gram-positive and Gram-negative infections (namely ceftolozane–tazobactam, ceftazidime–avibactam, cefiderocol, imipenem–relebactam, meropenem–vaborbactam, ceftaroline, ceftobiprole, dalbavancin, and fosfomycin), providing a practical approach in guiding dose optimization in this special population.
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11
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El-Haffaf I, Caissy JA, Marsot A. Piperacillin-Tazobactam in Intensive Care Units: A Review of Population Pharmacokinetic Analyses. Clin Pharmacokinet 2021; 60:855-875. [PMID: 33876381 DOI: 10.1007/s40262-021-01013-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Piperacillin-tazobactam is a potent β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor antibiotic commonly prescribed in the intensive care unit setting. Admitted patients often show large variability in treatment response due to multiple pathophysiological changes present in this population that alter the drug's pharmacokinetics. This review summarizes the population pharmacokinetic models developed for piperacillin-tazobactam and provides comprehensive data on current dosing strategies while identifying significant covariates in critically ill patients. A literature search on the PubMed database was conducted, from its inception to July 2020. Relevant articles were retained if they met the defined inclusion/exclusion criteria. A total of ten studies, published between 2009 and 2020, were eligible. One- and two-compartment models were used in two and eight studies, respectively. The lowest estimated piperacillin clearance value was 3.12 L/h, and the highest value was 19.9 L/h. The estimations for volume of distribution varied between 11.2 and 41.2 L. Tazobactam clearance values ranged between 5.1 and 6.78 L/h, and tazobactam volume of distribution values ranged between 17.5 and 76.1 L. The most frequent covariates were creatinine clearance and body weight, each present in four studies. Almost all studies used an exponential approach for the interindividual variability. The highest variability was observed in piperacillin central volume of distribution, at a value of 75.0%. Simulations showed that continuous or extended infusion methods performed better than intermittent administration to achieve appropriate pharmacodynamic targets. This review synthesizes important pharmacokinetic elements for piperacillin-tazobactam in an intensive care unit setting. This will help clinicians better understand changes in the drug's pharmacokinetic parameters in this specific population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim El-Haffaf
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Université de Montréal, Pavillon Jean-Coutu, 2940 Chemin de Polytechnique, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada. .,Laboratoire de Suivi Thérapeutique Pharmacologique et Pharmacocinétique, Faculty of Pharmacy, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada.
| | - Jean-Alexandre Caissy
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Université de Montréal, Pavillon Jean-Coutu, 2940 Chemin de Polytechnique, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada.,Laboratoire de Suivi Thérapeutique Pharmacologique et Pharmacocinétique, Faculty of Pharmacy, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Amélie Marsot
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Université de Montréal, Pavillon Jean-Coutu, 2940 Chemin de Polytechnique, Montreal, QC, H3T 1J4, Canada.,Laboratoire de Suivi Thérapeutique Pharmacologique et Pharmacocinétique, Faculty of Pharmacy, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Centre de recherche, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, QC, Canada
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12
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Poor Correlation between Meropenem and Piperacillin Plasma Concentrations and Delivered Dose of Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65:AAC.02029-20. [PMID: 33495227 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02029-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
There is insufficient data on the relationship between antibiotic dosing and plasma concentrations in patients treated with continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT). In this prospective observational study, we explored the variability in plasma concentrations of meropenem and piperacillin in critically ill patients treated with CRRT and the correlation between concentrations and CRRT intensity. Antibiotic concentrations were measured at the middle and end of the dosing interval and repeated after 2 to 3 days when feasible. Measured concentrations were compared to the clinical susceptible breakpoints for Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 16 and 2 mg/liter for piperacillin and meropenem, respectively. CRRT intensity was estimated by delivered, time-averaged, total effluent flow (Q eff), corrected for predilution. Concentrations were also compared between patients with different residual diuresis. We included 140 meropenem concentrations from 98 patients and 47 piperacillin concentrations from 37 patients. Concentrations at the middle of the dosing interval were above target at all occasions for both antibiotics. For meropenem, 6.5% of trough concentrations were below target, and for piperacillin, 22%. Correlations between Q eff and antibiotic concentrations or the concentration half-life (t 1/2) were either statistically not significant or weak. Meropenem concentrations and t 1/2 values differed between patients with different residual diuresis. Thus, when treating intensive care patients with CRRT and recommended doses of meropenem or piperacillin, both low, suboptimal plasma concentrations and unnecessarily high, potentially toxic, plasma concentrations are common. Plasma concentrations cannot be predicted from CRRT intensity. Residual diuresis is associated with lower meropenem concentrations, but the correlation is weak. Concentration measurement is probably the most useful approach to avoid suboptimal treatment.
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13
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Li L, Li X, Xia Y, Chu Y, Zhong H, Li J, Liang P, Bu Y, Zhao R, Liao Y, Yang P, Lu X, Jiang S. Recommendation of Antimicrobial Dosing Optimization During Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:786. [PMID: 32547394 PMCID: PMC7273837 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy (CRRT) is more and more widely used in patients for various indications recent years. It is still intricate for clinicians to decide a suitable empiric antimicrobial dosing for patients receiving CRRT. Inappropriate doses of antimicrobial agents may lead to treatment failure or drug resistance of pathogens. CRRT factors, patient individual conditions and drug pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics are the main elements effecting the antimicrobial dosing adjustment. With the development of CRRT techniques, some antimicrobial dosing recommendations in earlier studies were no longer appropriate for clinical use now. Here, we reviewed the literatures involving in new progresses of antimicrobial dosages, and complied the updated empirical dosing strategies based on CRRT modalities and effluent flow rates. The following antimicrobial agents were included for review: flucloxacillin, piperacillin/tazobactam, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime/avibactam, cefepime, ceftolozane/tazobactam, sulbactam, meropenem, imipenem, panipenem, biapenem, ertapenem, doripenem, amikacin, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, clindamycin, azithromycin, tigecycline, polymyxin B, colistin, vancomycin, teicoplanin, linezolid, daptomycin, sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, fluconazole, voriconazole, posaconzole, caspofungin, micafungin, amphotericin B, acyclovir, ganciclovir, oseltamivir, and peramivir.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Li
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yanzhe Xia
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yanqi Chu
- Department of Pharmacy, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Haili Zhong
- Department of Pharmacy, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Jia Li
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Pei Liang
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Nanjing, China
| | - Yishan Bu
- Department of Pharmacy, Tianjin First Central Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Rui Zhao
- School of Medicine, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yun Liao
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongren Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoyang Lu
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Saiping Jiang
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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14
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Broeker A, Vossen MG, Thalhammer F, Wallis SC, Lipman J, Roberts JA, Wicha SG. An Integrated Dialysis Pharmacometric (IDP) Model to Evaluate the Pharmacokinetics in Patients Undergoing Renal Replacement Therapy. Pharm Res 2020; 37:96. [PMID: 32409892 PMCID: PMC7225193 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-020-02832-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Clearance via renal replacement therapy (RRT) can significantly alter the pharmacokinetic profile of drugs. The aim of this study was (i) to improve the use of clinical trial data and (ii) to provide a model that allows quantification of all aspects of drug elimination via RRT including adsorption to dialysis membranes and/or degradation of the drug in the dialysate. METHODS An integrated dialysis pharmacometric (IDP) model was developed to simultaneously incorporate all available RRT information. The sensitivity, accuracy and precision of the IDP model was compared to conventional approaches in clinical trial simulations and applied to clinical datasets of teicoplanin and doripenem. RESULTS The IDP model was more accurate, precise and sensitive than conventional plasma-concentration-based approaches when estimating the clearanceRRT (relative bias <1%). In contrast to conventional approaches, adsorption and degradation were quantifiable using the IDP model (relative bias: -1.1% and - 1.9%, respectively). Applied to clinical data, clearanceRRT, drug degradation (effluent-half-lifedoripenem: 13.5 h-1) and adsorption (polysulphone adsorption capacityteicoplanin: 31.2 mg) were assessed. CONCLUSION The IDP model allows accurate, precise and sensitive characterization of clearanceRRT, adsorption and degradation. Successful quantification of all aspects of clearanceRRT in clinical data demonstrated the benefit of the IDP model as compared to conventional approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Broeker
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Hamburg, Bundesstraße 45, 20146, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Matthias G Vossen
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Florian Thalhammer
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Steven C Wallis
- University of Queensland Centre of Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jeffrey Lipman
- University of Queensland Centre of Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Jason A Roberts
- University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine & Centre for Translational Anti-infective Pharmacodynamics, School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
- Departments of Pharmacy and Intensive Care Medicine, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
- Division of Anaesthesiology Critical Care Emergency and Pain Medicine, Nîmes University Hospital, University of Montpellier, Nîmes, France
| | - Sebastian G Wicha
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Hamburg, Bundesstraße 45, 20146, Hamburg, Germany.
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15
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Effect of Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation on the New Vancomycin Dosing Regimen in Critically Ill Patients Receiving Continuous Venovenous Hemofiltration. Ther Drug Monit 2019; 40:310-314. [PMID: 29746432 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The optimal dosing regimen of vancomycin for critically ill patients receiving continuous venovenous hemofiltration (CVVH) remains controversial, not to mention those with concurrent use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). We aimed to determine if a new dosing regimen can achieve the target vancomycin trough concentration (Ctrough) of 10-20 mcg/mL in patients receiving CVVH with or without ECMO. METHODS We conducted a retrospective study by enrolling patients who received vancomycin while undergoing CVVH. The vancomycin dosing regimen was 15-20 mg/kg as the loading dose and 7.5 mg/kg every 12 hours as the maintenance doses. Serum concentration was determined after at least 4 doses of vancomycin were given. RESULTS A total of 38 patients were enrolled, of which 21 were also on ECMO. The ultrafiltration rate of CVVH was 30.6 ± 5.5 mL·kg·h with the Ctrough of 14.7 ± 3.5 mcg/mL. Ctrough was within the target range in 82% of patients. All CVVH-only patients achieved the target concentration, whereas only 76.2% of those with concurrent ECMO did (P = 0.031). CONCLUSIONS All patients receiving CVVH achieved the target Ctrough with this new dosing regimen, but those with concurrent ECMO did not. Ctrough must be more closely monitored in patients using ECMO simultaneously.
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16
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Lonsdale DO, Baker EH, Kipper K, Barker C, Philips B, Rhodes A, Sharland M, Standing JF. Scaling beta-lactam antimicrobial pharmacokinetics from early life to old age. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2018; 85:316-346. [PMID: 30176176 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.13756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Beta-lactam dose optimization in critical care is a current priority. We aimed to review the pharmacokinetics (PK) of three commonly used beta-lactams (amoxicillin ± clavulanate, piperacillin-tazobactam and meropenem) to compare PK parameters reported in critically and noncritically ill neonates, children and adults, and to investigate whether allometric and maturation scaling principles could be applied to describe changes in PK parameters through life. METHODS A systematic review of PK studies of the three drugs was undertaken using MEDLINE and EMBASE. PK parameters and summary statistics were extracted and scaled using allometric principles to 70 kg individual for comparison. Pooled data were used to model clearance maturation and decline using a sigmoidal (Hill) function. RESULTS A total of 130 papers were identified. Age ranged from 29 weeks to 82 years and weight from 0.9-200 kg. PK parameters from critically ill populations were reported with wider confidence intervals than those in healthy volunteers, indicating greater PK variability in critical illness. The standard allometric size and sigmoidal maturation model adequately described increasing clearance in neonates, and a sigmoidal model was also used to describe decline in older age. Adult weight-adjusted clearance was achieved at approximately 2 years postmenstrual age. Changes in volume of distribution were well described by the standard allometric model, although amoxicillin data suggested a relatively higher volume of distribution in neonates. CONCLUSIONS Critical illness is associated with greater PK variability than in healthy volunteers. The maturation models presented will be useful for optimizing beta-lactam dosing, although a prospective, age-inclusive study is warranted for external validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dagan O Lonsdale
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, UK.,St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Emma H Baker
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, UK.,St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Karin Kipper
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, UK.,Institute of Chemistry, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.,Analytical Services International Ltd
| | - Charlotte Barker
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, UK
| | - Barbara Philips
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, UK.,St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Andrew Rhodes
- St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Mike Sharland
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, UK.,St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Joseph F Standing
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's, University of London, London, UK.,St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK.,UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK.,Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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17
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Antibiotic therapy in the critically ill - expert opinion of the Intensive Care Medicine Scientific Subcommittee of the European Society of Anaesthesiology. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2018; 34:215-220. [PMID: 28248705 DOI: 10.1097/eja.0000000000000595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial treatment is the cornerstone of infection treatment, and the selection of appropriate antibiotic treatment for critically ill patients is challenging. Clinicians working with critically ill patients usually feel a greater obligation towards their patient than towards maintenance of the delicate ecological balance of prevalent microbiological threats and their resistance patterns. Although antibiotic overtreatment is a frequent phenomenon, patient outcomes need not be compromised when antibiotic treatment is driven by informed decision-making.At the 2016 Euro Anaesthesia Conference (London, UK), the European Society of Anaesthesia Intensive Care Scientific Subcommittee convened an expert panel on antibiotic therapy. This article summarises the main conclusions of the panel, namely the principles of antibiotic therapy that all physicians working with critically ill patients must know.
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18
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Montrucchio G, Sales G, Corcione S, De Rosa FG, Brazzi L. Choosing wisely: what is the actual role of antimicrobial stewardship in Intensive Care Units? Minerva Anestesiol 2018; 85:71-82. [PMID: 29991221 DOI: 10.23736/s0375-9393.18.12662-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
More than two-thirds of critically ill patients receive an antimicrobial therapy with a percentage between 30% and 50% of all prescribed antibiotics reported to be unnecessary, inappropriate or misused. Since inappropriate prescription of antibiotic drugs concurs to dissemination of the multidrug resistant organisms, a reasoned antibiotics use is crucial especially in Intensive Care Unit (ICU), where up to 60% of the admitted patients develops an infection during their ICU stay. Even if the concept of antimicrobial stewardship (AS) has been clearly described as a series of coordinated interventions designed to improve antimicrobial agents use, few studies are reporting about its effectiveness to improve outcomes, reduce adverse events and costs and decrease resistance rate spread. Moreover, although it is recognized that AS programs are particularly indicated in the critical setting due to the huge number of antimicrobial drugs used, the optimal characteristics of these interventions and the best system to evaluate their effectiveness are still unclear. Specific interventions, designed tacking into account the peculiarities of the ICU setting, are hence necessary to set-up an "in-ICU-stewardship," including prompt identification of infected patients, selection of appropriate empiric treatments, optimization of dosing and route of administration, improvement of diagnostic techniques, early de-escalation to achieve shorter duration and avoid unnecessary therapies. The present narrative review summarizes the "state of art" about AS programmes and discusses the effects of the interventions possibly applied in ICU setting to optimize the patient's treatment, reduce the micro-organisms resistance and contain the hospital resources utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gabriele Sales
- Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Silvia Corcione
- Department of Medical Sciences, Infectious Diseases, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Francesco G De Rosa
- Department of Medical Sciences, Infectious Diseases, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Luca Brazzi
- Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.,Department of Anaesthesia, Intensive Care and Emergency, "Città della Salute e della Scienza" Hospital, Turin, Italy
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19
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Kanji S, Roberts JA, Xie J, Alobaid A, Zelenitsky S, Hiremath S, Zhang G, Watpool I, Porteous R, Patel R. Piperacillin Population Pharmacokinetics in Critically Ill Adults During Sustained Low-Efficiency Dialysis. Ann Pharmacother 2018; 52:965-973. [PMID: 29730948 DOI: 10.1177/1060028018773771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sustained low-efficiency dialysis (SLED), is increasingly being used in intensive care units (ICUs) but studies informing drug dosing for such patients is lacking. OBJECTIVE To describe the population pharmacokinetics (PKs) of piperacillin/tazobactam in critically ill adults receiving SLED and to provide dosing recommendations. METHODS This prospective population PK study was conducted in adult ICU patients prescribed piperacillin/tazobactam while receiving SLED; 321 blood samples were obtained from 34 participants during and between approximately 50 SLED treatments for quantification of piperacillin and tazobactam concentrations in plasma. A population PK model was developed. Monte Carlo simulation was used to determine the probability of target attainment and pathogen-specific fractional target attainment at different doses. RESULTS From a 2-compartment linear model with zero-order input, the mean (SD) clearance of piperacillin on SLED and off SLED were 4.81 (8.48) and 1.42 (1.54) L/h, respectively. Tazobactam concentrations were not sufficient for analysis. For the target of 50% fT>MIC (unbound concentrations of drug are above the minimum inhibitory concentration for >50% of the dosing interval), 3-g of piperacillin infused over 0.5 hours every 8 hours was appropriate for susceptible organisms with MIC ≤16 mg/L. For life-threatening infections where the target of 100% fT>MIC is preferred, a 9-g dose administered as a continuous infusion every 24 hours was appropriate for susceptible organisms with MIC ≤32 mg/L. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE In critically ill patients receiving SLED, piperacillin doses need to be guided by the frequency of SLED treatments and susceptibility of the known or suspected pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salmaan Kanji
- 1 The Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,2 The Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Jason A Roberts
- 3 The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.,4 Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Jiao Xie
- 3 The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | | | | | - Swapnil Hiremath
- 1 The Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,2 The Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Guijun Zhang
- 2 The Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Irene Watpool
- 2 The Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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20
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Rawson TM, O’Hare D, Herrero P, Sharma S, Moore LSP, de Barra E, Roberts JA, Gordon AC, Hope W, Georgiou P, Cass AEG, Holmes AH. Delivering precision antimicrobial therapy through closed-loop control systems. J Antimicrob Chemother 2018; 73:835-843. [PMID: 29211877 PMCID: PMC5890674 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkx458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sub-optimal exposure to antimicrobial therapy is associated with poor patient outcomes and the development of antimicrobial resistance. Mechanisms for optimizing the concentration of a drug within the individual patient are under development. However, several barriers remain in realizing true individualization of therapy. These include problems with plasma drug sampling, availability of appropriate assays, and current mechanisms for dose adjustment. Biosensor technology offers a means of providing real-time monitoring of antimicrobials in a minimally invasive fashion. We report the potential for using microneedle biosensor technology as part of closed-loop control systems for the optimization of antimicrobial therapy in individual patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Rawson
- National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infections and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London, UK
| | - D O’Hare
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - P Herrero
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, UK
| | - S Sharma
- College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - L S P Moore
- National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infections and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London, UK
- Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, Acton, UK
| | - E de Barra
- Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, Acton, UK
| | - J A Roberts
- University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine and Centre for Translational Pharmacodynamics, School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
- Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
| | - A C Gordon
- Section of Anaesthetics, Pain Medicine & Intensive Care, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - W Hope
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - P Georgiou
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, UK
| | - A E G Cass
- Department of Chemistry & Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, Kensington Campus, London, UK
| | - A H Holmes
- National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infections and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London, UK
- Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, Acton, UK
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21
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Pilmis B, Jullien V, Tabah A, Zahar JR, Brun-Buisson C. Piperacillin-tazobactam as alternative to carbapenems for ICU patients. Ann Intensive Care 2017; 7:113. [PMID: 29127502 PMCID: PMC5681454 DOI: 10.1186/s13613-017-0334-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Several studies suggest that alternatives to carbapenems, and particulary beta-lactam/beta-lactamase inhibitor combinations, can be used for therapy of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-PE)-related infections in non-ICU patients. Little is known concerning ICU patients in whom achieving the desired plasmatic pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) target may be difficult. Also, in vitro susceptibility to beta-lactamase inhibitors might not translate into clinical efficacy. We reviewed the recent clinical studies examining the use of BL/BLI as alternatives to carbapenems for therapy of bloodstream infection, PK/PD data and discuss potential ecological benefit from avoiding the use of carbapenems. With the lack of prospective randomized studies, treating ICU patients with ESBL-PE-related infections using piperacillin-tazobactam should be done with caution. Current data suggest that BL/BLI empirical use should be avoided for therapy of ESBL-PE-related infection. Also, definitive therapy should be reserved to patients in clinical stable condition, after microbial documentation and results of susceptibility tests. Optimization of administration and higher dosage should be used in order to reach pharmacological targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Pilmis
- Service de maladies infectieuses et tropicales, Hôpital Necker Enfants malades, Service de maladies infectieuses et tropicales, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France.,Equipe mobile de microbiologie clinique, Groupe Hospitalier Paris Saint-Joseph, Paris, France
| | - Vincent Jullien
- Service de Pharmacologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France.,INSERM U1129, Paris, France
| | - Alexis Tabah
- Intensive Care Unit, The Redcliffe Hospital, Brisbane, Australia.,Burns, Trauma and Critical Care Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Jean-Ralph Zahar
- Département de Microbiologie Clinique, Unité de Contrôle et de Prévention du risque Infectieux, Groupe Hospitalier Paris Seine Saint-Denis, AP-HP, CHU Avicenne, 125 rue de Stalingrad, 9300, Bobigny, France. .,Infection Control Unit, IAME, UMR 1137, Université Paris 13, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.
| | - Christian Brun-Buisson
- Réanimation médicale, Hôpital Henri Mondor, Université Paris Est Créteil (UPEC), Créteil, France
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22
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Roger C, Cotta MO, Muller L, Wallis SC, Lipman J, Lefrant JY, Roberts JA. Impact of renal replacement modalities on the clearance of piperacillin-tazobactam administered via continuous infusion in critically ill patients. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2017; 50:227-231. [PMID: 28689876 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2017.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2016] [Revised: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
This prospective pharmacokinetic study aimed to compare the clearance of piperacillin-tazobactam administered as a 24-h continuous infusion between continuous venovenous haemodiafiltration (CVVHDF) and continuous venovenous haemofiltration (CVVH) applied at equal dose in critically ill patients. A loading dose of 4.5 g of piperacillin-tazobactam followed by a continuous infusion (500 mg/h) was administered to patients randomized to receive CVVHDF or CVVH. Serial pre- and postfilter blood samples were drawn during an 8-h sampling interval. Piperacillin plasma concentrations were measured using a validated chromatography method. Piperacillin pharmacokinetics were calculated using a non-compartmental approach. In total, 212 piperacillin plasma concentrations were determined. Median [interquartile range (IQR)] total piperacillin clearance was 7.5 (5.9-11.2) L/h in the CVVHDF group and 4.7 (4.5-9.6) L/h in the CVVH group (P = 0.21). Median (IQR) piperacillin clearance related to continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) was 3.0 (2.7-3.2) L/h in the CVVHDF group and 2.6 (1.9-3.0) L/h in the CVVH group (P = 0.29). Mean (standard deviation) steady state concentrations were 68.4 (25.8) mg/L in the CVVHDF group and 89.1 (35.6) mg/L in the CVVH group (P = 0.16). The estimated unbound concentrations resulting from piperacillin continuous infusion were above the target susceptibility breakpoint (16 mg/L) for the entire dosing interval (100% fT>MIC) in all study patients. In the present study, higher (but not significantly) piperacillin clearance and lower piperacillin exposure were observed in patients receiving CVVHDF compared with CVVH. In patients receiving CRRT, the use of piperacillin continuous infusion should be considered to ensure optimal exposure for less susceptible pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Roger
- Service des réanimations, Pôle Anesthésie Réanimation Douleur Urgence, CHU Nîmes, France; Burns, Trauma, and Critical Care Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Menino O Cotta
- Burns, Trauma, and Critical Care Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Pharmacy Department, Royal Brisbane and Womens' Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Laurent Muller
- Service des réanimations, Pôle Anesthésie Réanimation Douleur Urgence, CHU Nîmes, France
| | - Steven C Wallis
- Burns, Trauma, and Critical Care Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jeffrey Lipman
- Burns, Trauma, and Critical Care Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Royal Brisbane and Womens' Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jean-Yves Lefrant
- Service des réanimations, Pôle Anesthésie Réanimation Douleur Urgence, CHU Nîmes, France
| | - Jason A Roberts
- Burns, Trauma, and Critical Care Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Royal Brisbane and Womens' Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; Pharmacy Department, Royal Brisbane and Womens' Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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23
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Delattre IK, Taccone FS, Jacobs F, Hites M, Dugernier T, Spapen H, Laterre PF, Wallemacq PE, Van Bambeke F, Tulkens PM. Optimizing β-lactams treatment in critically-ill patients using pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics targets: are first conventional doses effective? Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2017; 15:677-688. [PMID: 28571493 DOI: 10.1080/14787210.2017.1338139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic index determining β-lactam activity is the percentage of the dosing interval (%T) during which their free serum concentration remains above a critical threshold over the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). Regrettably, neither the value of %T nor that of the threshold are clearly defined for critically-ill patients. Areas covered: We review and assess the targets proposed for β-lactams in critical illness by screening the literature since 1997. Depending on the study intention (clinical cure vs. suppression of resistance), targets proposed range from 20%T > 1xMIC to 100%T > 5xMIC. Assessment and comparative analysis of their respective clinical efficacy suggest that a value of 100%T > 4xMIC may be needed. Simulation studies, however, show that this target will not be reached at first dose for the majority of critically-ill patients if using the most commonly recommended doses. Expert commentary: Considering that critically-ill patients are highly vulnerable and likely to experience antibiotic underexposure, and because effective initial treatment is a key determinant of clinical outcome, we support the use of a target of 100%T > 4xMIC, which could not only maximize efficacy but also minimize emergence of resistance. Clinical and microbiological studies are needed to test for the feasibility and effectiveness of reaching such a demanding target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle K Delattre
- a Louvain Drug Research Institute , Université catholique de Louvain , Brussels , Belgium.,b Department of Clinical Chemistry , Cliniques Universitaires St-Luc , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Fabio S Taccone
- c Department of Intensive Care , Hôpital Erasme , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Frédérique Jacobs
- d Department of Infectious Diseases , Hôpital Erasme , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Maya Hites
- d Department of Infectious Diseases , Hôpital Erasme , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Thierry Dugernier
- e Department of Intensive Care , Clinique St-Pierre , Ottignies , Belgium
| | - Herbert Spapen
- f Department of Intensive Care , Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel , Brussels , Belgium
| | | | - Pierre E Wallemacq
- b Department of Clinical Chemistry , Cliniques Universitaires St-Luc , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Françoise Van Bambeke
- a Louvain Drug Research Institute , Université catholique de Louvain , Brussels , Belgium
| | - Paul M Tulkens
- a Louvain Drug Research Institute , Université catholique de Louvain , Brussels , Belgium
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24
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Dillon RC, Witcher R, Cies JJ, Moore WS, Chopra A. Pharmacokinetics of Peramivir in an Adolescent Patient Receiving Continuous Venovenous Hemodiafiltration. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther 2017; 22:60-64. [PMID: 28337082 DOI: 10.5863/1551-6776-22.1.60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Critically ill patients requiring renal replacement therapy commonly experience pharmacokinetic alterations. This case report describes the pharmacokinetics of peramivir (Rapivab, BioCryst Pharmaceuticals, Inc, Durham, NC), the first US Food and Drug Administration-approved intravenous neuraminidase inhibitor for the treatment of influenza, in an adolescent patient receiving continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT). A 49.5-kg, 17-year-old Caucasian female presented with fever, cough, and persistent hypoxia. She quickly progressed to acute respiratory and renal failure in the setting of viral septic shock as a result of a severe influenza H1N1 infection. On hospital day 3, therapy was switched from oseltamivir (Tamiflu, Roche Laboratories Inc, Nutley, NJ) to peramivir owing to the concern for inadequate enteral absorption. On the third day of peramivir treatment, at a dose of 200 mg daily, peramivir serum concentrations revealed a smaller peak concentration, larger volumes of distribution, similar 24-hour area under the curve, and a shorter half-life as compared to adult patients with normal renal function. This illustrated the significant differences in pharmacokinetics when administered in the setting of CRRT. The patient had resolution of viral infection as evidenced by negative respiratory viral panel polymerase chain reaction at hospital day 14 and was eventually discharged at her baseline.
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25
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Zilahi G, Artigas A, Martin-Loeches I. What's new in multidrug-resistant pathogens in the ICU? Ann Intensive Care 2016; 6:96. [PMID: 27714706 PMCID: PMC5053965 DOI: 10.1186/s13613-016-0199-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last several decades, antibacterial drug use has become widespread with their misuse being an ever-increasing phenomenon. Consequently, antibacterial drugs have become less effective or even ineffective, resulting in a global health security emergency. The prevalence of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs) varies widely among regions and countries. The primary aim of antibiotic stewardship programs is to supervise the three most influential factors contributing to the development and transmission of MDROs, namely: (1) appropriate antibiotic prescribing; (2) early detection and prevention of cross-colonization of MDROs; and (3) elimination of reservoirs. In the future, it is expected that a number of countries will experience a rise in MDROs. These infections will be associated with a high consumption of healthcare resources manifested by a prolonged hospital stay and high mortality. As a counteractive strategy, minimization of broad-spectrum antibiotic use and prompt antibiotic administration will aid in reduction of antibiotic resistance. Innovative management approaches include development and implementation of rapid diagnostic tests that will help in both shortening the duration of therapy and allowing early targeted therapy. The institution of more accessible therapeutic drug monitoring will help to optimize drug administration and support a patient-specific approach. Areas where further research is required are investigation into the heterogeneity of critically ill patients and the need for new antibacterial drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabor Zilahi
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, Multidisciplinary Intensive Care Research Organization (MICRO), Wellcome Trust‐HRB Clinical Research, St James’s Hospital, St James’s University Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Antonio Artigas
- Critical Care Center, Parc Taulí Hospital-Sabadell, CIBERes, Parc Tauli s/n., Sabadell, Barcelona, Spain
- Centros de Investigación Biomédica en Red (CIBER), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ignacio Martin-Loeches
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, Multidisciplinary Intensive Care Research Organization (MICRO), Wellcome Trust‐HRB Clinical Research, St James’s Hospital, St James’s University Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
- Centros de Investigación Biomédica en Red (CIBER), Madrid, Spain
- Wellcome Trust‐HRB Clinical Research, Dublin, Ireland
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, Dublin, Ireland
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