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Makhdoom HS, Afzal S, Sultana K, Shah SNH, Mujahid M, Hassan ZU, Munir F, Jahan F, Abbas Z, Abid AI, Khan NUH. SPE-UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS Analysis of Cocaine and Its Metabolites in Conventional and Alternative Biological Specimens: Application to Real Samples. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:23355-23363. [PMID: 38854579 PMCID: PMC11154955 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c09669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
An increase in cocaine abuse has been observed globally since the past decade. Cocaine is among the commonly abused stimulants used for recreational purposes. In this study, the SPE-UHPLC-MS/MS method was developed and validated to be applied on real specimens of 20 chronic cocaine abusers to quantify cocaine/metabolites in conventional as well as alternative biological matrices. Cocaine was extracted from biological specimens using solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Chromatographic separation was achieved on a Poroshell120EC-18 column (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 2.7 μm particle size) using water-acetonitrile in 0.1% formic acid as a mobile phase in gradient elution mode. The flow rate of the mobile phase was 0.5 mL/min with a gradient varying the percentage of acetonitrile linearity ranging 15-95% in 6.0 min acquisition time, and the injection volume was set at 5 μL. Positive electrospray ionization with multireaction ion monitoring mode using two ion transitions for cocaine/metabolites and one for cocaine-d3 was employed. The quantification method demonstrated good linear ranges of 0.025-250 ng/mL in blood, urine, and oral fluid (ng/mg for hair and nail) with a ≥0.991% determination coefficient. The detection limit and lower quantification limit were 0.005 and 0.025 ng/mL in all matrices, respectively. The mean extraction recovery and ionization suppression ranged from 89.3 to 99.8% and -4.6 to -14.4% in the studied matrices. Within-run and between-days precisions were 1.8-7.2% and 1.9-6.1%, respectively. This study will not only help in quantifying cocaine/metabolites in alternative specimens (hair, nail, and oral fluid) but also guide clinical and forensic toxicologists in interpretation of exhumation cases. Furthermore, multiple specimens' analyses can be of significance in estimating the time/manner of drug exposure, in confirming the results of laboratories in cases of doubtful clinical histories, or in aiding medico-legal investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humera Shafi Makhdoom
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lahore, Lahore 44000, Pakistan
- Clinical
and Forensic Toxicology Department, Chughtai
Healthcare, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
| | - Saira Afzal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lahore, Lahore 44000, Pakistan
| | - Kishwar Sultana
- Department of Pharmacy, Iqra
University Islamabad Campus, Islamabad 440000, Pakistan
| | | | - Majida Mujahid
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lahore, Lahore 44000, Pakistan
- Drug
Regulatory Authority of Pakistan, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
| | | | - Farida Munir
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lahore, Lahore 44000, Pakistan
| | - Faryal Jahan
- Shifa Tameer e Millat University Islamabad, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
| | - Zeerak Abbas
- Clinical
and Forensic Toxicology Department, Chughtai
Healthcare, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
| | - Ali Imran Abid
- Department of Regenerative
Nanomedicine, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg 67081, France
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Grabenauer M, Vikingsson S, Olson RA, Lyons FE, Davis LS, Hayes ED, Flegel RR. Systematic web monitoring of drug test subversion strategies in the United States. Drug Test Anal 2024. [PMID: 38520174 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
As negative drug tests are frequently a condition for employment, some people who use drugs will try to subvert the testing. In this study, systematic web monitoring was used to investigate how drug test subversion is discussed online. Posts pertaining to drug test subversion were obtained from public websites and the dark web (n = 634, July-December 2021). Most information from public websites came from Twitter (65%), and 94% of dark web posts were from Reddit. The posts were manually coded to extract quantitative and qualitative information about drug test subversion tactics. Most posts discussed urine drug tests (85%), followed by hair (11%) and oral fluid (2%), and the most discussed drugs were marijuana (72%) and cocaine (7.3%). Urine drug test subversion mainly pertained to specimen substitution, with synthetic urine or urine from another person. Another strategy was to mask diluted urine by ingesting creatine. Urine adulteration was rarely discussed. Hair test subversion involved harsh treatments with products such as bleach, baking soda, and/or detergent. Hair removal was also discussed. Oral fluid test subversion focused on removing drugs from the oral cavity through vigorous brushing of teeth and tongue as well as the use of mouthwash, hydrogen peroxide, gum, and commercial detox products. This study highlights subversion strategies used by donors. Although little evidence was provided as to the effectiveness of these strategies, this information may help guide future studies and development of specimen validity testing to minimize the impact of drug test subversion attempts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Grabenauer
- Center for Forensic Science Advancement and Application, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Svante Vikingsson
- Center for Forensic Science Advancement and Application, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Richard A Olson
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - Faith E Lyons
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - Lisa S Davis
- Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Eugene D Hayes
- Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Ronald R Flegel
- Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, Maryland, USA
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Harper CE, Hudson JS, Tidwell K, Boswell R, Yong HL, Maxwell AJ. Implementation of the first comprehensive state oral fluid drug testing program for roadside screening and laboratory testing in DUID cases-A 5-year review. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 47:694-702. [PMID: 37526020 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkad051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Oral fluid (OF) is a valuable specimen for driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) applications. This study demonstrates the implementation of the first comprehensive OF drug testing program in the United States, including approved roadside screening OF devices for law enforcement and validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) confirmation methods. Three roadside OF screening devices were evaluated: the Dräger DrugTest® 5000, Abbott SoToxa®, and Randox Evidence MultiSTAT™. Two qualitative LC-MS-MS confirmation methods were validated per ASB Standard 036. The first method utilized an automated dispersive pipette extraction extraction using Integra and Hamilton STARlet platforms for drugs of abuse. The second method used a liquid-liquid extraction to detect cannabinoids. The prevalence of drugs in blood and OF was monitored over 5 years of casework. Calibration curves were analyzed with each batch to monitor OF concentrations for research purposes. Three roadside OF screening devices were deemed fit for purpose. Devices demonstrated appropriate sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, and accuracy above 80% for targeted drugs except for benzodiazepines (DrugTest® 5000) and amphetamine (SoToxa®). The validated LC-MS-MS OF confirmation methods met the National Safety Council-recommended cutoffs for 18/21 (86%) of the targets. Over 5 years of casework, THC and cocaine were detected at a positivity rate of 90% and 97% in OF versus 75% and 44% in blood, respectively. OF:blood ratios exceeded unity for parent drugs. Median concentrations of THC in OF and blood were 31 and 3.5 ng/mL, respectively. OF is a viable alternative or supplemental specimen for DUID investigations. Collecting OF close to the driving event increases the opportunity to identify pharmacologically active substances, and when combined with blood analysis results, an elevated OF:blood ratio provides valuable information for DUID investigation purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Curt E Harper
- Alabama Department of Forensic Sciences, 2026 Valleydale Rd, Hoover, AL 35244, USA
| | - Jason S Hudson
- Quest Diagnostics, 10101 Renner Blvd, Lenexa, KS 66219, USA
| | - Kristin Tidwell
- Alabama Department of Forensic Sciences, 2026 Valleydale Rd, Hoover, AL 35244, USA
| | - Rebekah Boswell
- Alabama Department of Forensic Sciences, 2026 Valleydale Rd, Hoover, AL 35244, USA
| | - Hui Liu Yong
- Alabama Department of Forensic Sciences, 2026 Valleydale Rd, Hoover, AL 35244, USA
| | - Antoinette J Maxwell
- Alabama Department of Forensic Sciences, 2026 Valleydale Rd, Hoover, AL 35244, USA
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Cocaine: An Updated Overview on Chemistry, Detection, Biokinetics, and Pharmacotoxicological Aspects including Abuse Pattern. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14040278. [PMID: 35448887 PMCID: PMC9032145 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14040278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cocaine is one of the most consumed stimulants throughout the world, as official sources report. It is a naturally occurring sympathomimetic tropane alkaloid derived from the leaves of Erythroxylon coca, which has been used by South American locals for millennia. Cocaine can usually be found in two forms, cocaine hydrochloride, a white powder, or ‘crack’ cocaine, the free base. While the first is commonly administered by insufflation (‘snorting’) or intravenously, the second is adapted for inhalation (smoking). Cocaine can exert local anaesthetic action by inhibiting voltage-gated sodium channels, thus halting electrical impulse propagation; cocaine also impacts neurotransmission by hindering monoamine reuptake, particularly dopamine, from the synaptic cleft. The excess of available dopamine for postsynaptic activation mediates the pleasurable effects reported by users and contributes to the addictive potential and toxic effects of the drug. Cocaine is metabolised (mostly hepatically) into two main metabolites, ecgonine methyl ester and benzoylecgonine. Other metabolites include, for example, norcocaine and cocaethylene, both displaying pharmacological action, and the last one constituting a biomarker for co-consumption of cocaine with alcohol. This review provides a brief overview of cocaine’s prevalence and patterns of use, its physical-chemical properties and methods for analysis, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and multi-level toxicity.
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Chen X, Zhou C, Guo X. Ultrasensitive Detection and Binding Mechanism of Cocaine in an Aptamer‐based Single‐molecule Device. CHINESE J CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/cjoc.201900225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xinjiani Chen
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, State Key Laboratory for Structural Chemistry of Unstable and Stable Species, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Center for Life SciencesPeking University Beijing 100871 China
| | - Chenguang Zhou
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, State Key Laboratory for Structural Chemistry of Unstable and Stable Species, College of Chemistry and Molecular EngineeringPeking University Beijing 100871 China
| | - Xuefeng Guo
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, State Key Laboratory for Structural Chemistry of Unstable and Stable Species, College of Chemistry and Molecular EngineeringPeking University Beijing 100871 China
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, College of EngineeringPeking University Beijing 100871 China
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Abdelshafi NA, Panne U, Schneider RJ. Screening for cocaine on Euro banknotes by a highly sensitive enzyme immunoassay. Talanta 2017; 165:619-624. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2017.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 12/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Vidal JC, Bertolín JR, Bonel L, Asturias L, Arcos-Martínez MJ, Castillo JR. A Multi-electrochemical Competitive Immunosensor for Sensitive Cocaine Determination in Biological Samples. ELECTROANAL 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201500517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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8
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van der Heide S, Garcia Calavia P, Hardwick S, Hudson S, Wolff K, Russell DA. A competitive enzyme immunoassay for the quantitative detection of cocaine from banknotes and latent fingermarks. Forensic Sci Int 2015; 250:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Revised: 02/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/06/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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9
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Bioanalytical methods for the determination of cocaine and metabolites in human biological samples. Bioanalysis 2011; 1:977-1000. [PMID: 21083066 DOI: 10.4155/bio.09.72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Determination of cocaine and its metabolites in biological specimens is of great importance, not only in clinical and forensic toxicology, but also in workplace drug testing. These compounds are normally screened for using sensitive immunological methods. However, screening methods are unspecific and, therefore, the posterior confirmation of presumably positive samples by a specific technique is mandatory. Although GC-MS-based techniques are still the most commonly used for confirmation purposes of cocaine and its metabolites in biological specimens, the advent of LC-MS and LC-MS/MS has enabled the detection of even lower amounts of these drugs, which assumes particular importance when sample volume available is small, as frequently occurs with oral fluid. This paper will review recently-published papers that describe procedures for detection of cocaine and metabolites, not only in the most commonly used specimens, such as blood and urine, but also in other 'alternative' matrices (e.g., oral fluid and hair) with a special focus on sample preparation and chromatographic analysis.
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Caporossi L, Santoro A, Papaleo B. Saliva as an analytical matrix: state of the art and application for biomonitoring. Biomarkers 2010; 15:475-87. [PMID: 20450335 DOI: 10.3109/1354750x.2010.481364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Analytical tests to measure chemicals in saliva can be employed for numerous analytes, endogenous compounds or xenobiotics. The objective was to determine which chemicals can be analysed with this matrix, which analytical methods are applicable, and what application is possible for biomonitoring. We reviewed the literature using three databases, MEDLINE, PubMed and Scopus, collecting articles on different kinds of analysis in saliva. Studies were principally about molecules of clinical interest, xenobiotics, especially drugs of abuse, and chemicals used at workplaces; some substances show no relevant correlation with exposure data while others seems to be of particular interest for systematic use for biomonitoring. Currently, saliva is used far less than other biological fluids but its use for biomonitoring of exposure to chemicals might open up new areas for research and would certainly simplify the collection of biological samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidia Caporossi
- ISPESL-National Institute of Occupational Safety and Prevention, Department of Occupational Medicine, Monteporzio Catone (RM), Italy.
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11
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Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 170:1155-60. [PMID: 20625025 DOI: 10.1001/archinternmed.2010.140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 292] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Drug use (illicit drug use and nonmedical use of prescription drugs) is common but underrecognized in primary care settings. We validated a single-question screening test for drug use and drug use disorders in primary care. METHODS Adult patients recruited from primary care waiting rooms were asked the single screening question, "How many times in the past year have you used an illegal drug or used a prescription medication for nonmedical reasons?" A response of at least 1 time was considered positive for drug use. They were also asked the 10-item Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10). The reference standard was the presence or absence of current (past year) drug use or a drug use disorder (abuse or dependence) as determined by a standardized diagnostic interview. Drug use was also determined by oral fluid testing for common drugs of abuse. RESULTS Of 394 eligible primary care patients, 286 (73%) completed the interview. The single screening question was 100% sensitive (95% confidence interval [CI], 90.6%-100%) and 73.5% specific (95% CI, 67.7%-78.6%) for the detection of a drug use disorder. It was less sensitive for the detection of self-reported current drug use (92.9%; 95% CI, 86.1%-96.5%) and drug use detected by oral fluid testing or self-report (81.8%; 95% CI, 72.5%-88.5%). Test characteristics were similar to those of the DAST-10 and were affected very little by participant demographic characteristics. CONCLUSION The single screening question accurately identified drug use in this sample of primary care patients, supporting the usefulness of this brief screen in primary care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter C Smith
- Section of General Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA.
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12
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Abstract
Drug oral fluid analysis was first used almost 30 years ago for the purpose of therapeutic drug monitoring. Since then, oral fluid bioanalysis has become more popular, mainly in the fields of pharmacokinetics, workplace drug testing, criminal justice, driving under the influence testing and therapeutic drug monitoring. In fact, oral fluid can provide a readily available and noninvasive medium, without any privacy loss by the examinee, which occurs, for instance, during the collection of urine samples. It is believed that drug concentrations in oral fluid may parallel those measured in blood. This feature makes oral fluid an alternative analytical specimen to blood, which assumes particular importance in roadside testing, the most published application of this sample. Great improvements in the development of accurate and reliable methods for sample collection, in situ detection devices (on-site drug detection kits), and highly sensitive and specific analytical methods for oral fluid testing of drugs have been observed in the last few years. However, without mass spectrometry-based analytical methods, such as liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC–MS) or tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS), the desired sensitivity would not be met, due to the low amounts of sample usually available for analysis. This review will discuss a series of published papers on the applicability of oral fluid in the field of analytical, clinical and forensic toxicology, with a special focus on its advantages and drawbacks over the normally used biological specimens and the main technological advances over the last decade, which have made oral fluid analysis of drugs possible.
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Fernández P, Morales L, Vázquez C, Lago M, Bermejo AM. Comparison of two extraction procedures for determination of drugs of abuse in human saliva by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Appl Toxicol 2009; 28:998-1003. [PMID: 18615842 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
High performance liquid chromatography in combination with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) was used to determine morphine, 6-acetylmorphine, cocaine, benzoylecgonine, cocaethylene, methadone and 2-ethylene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3,-diphenylpyrrolidine in human saliva. For comparison, samples were prepared by either liquid-liquid extraction in Toxitubes A or microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), by mixing 1 ml of saliva with 10 ml of chloroform and operating at 100 degrees C for 10 min. Acetonitrile and 0.02 m phosphate buffer at pH 6.5 were used as mobile phase in HPLC in gradient mode. The detector response was linear over the drug concentration range of 0.05-2.0 microg ml(-1) in human saliva. The analytical method was validated by determining its precision and accuracy (n = 5), which were lower than 5% as relative standard deviation and 6% as relative error. Limits of detection ranged from 10 to 35 ng ml(-1); mean recoveries of drugs were from 53 to 95% with Toxitubes A and from 83 to 100% with MAE at two different concentrations (0.1 and 1.0 microg ml(-1)). The proposed method was applied to 24 saliva samples from individuals poisoned with opiates and/or cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Fernández
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Forensic Toxicology Service, Faculty of Medicine, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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14
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Phipps RJ, Smith JJ, Darwin WD, Cone EJ. Chapter 2 Current methods for the separation and analysis of cocaine analytes. HANDBOOK OF ANALYTICAL SEPARATIONS 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s1567-7192(06)06002-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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15
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Samyn N, Laloup M, De Boeck G. Bioanalytical procedures for determination of drugs of abuse in oral fluid. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 388:1437-53. [PMID: 17404716 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1245-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2007] [Revised: 03/02/2007] [Accepted: 03/06/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in analytical techniques have enabled the detection of drugs and drug metabolites in oral fluid specimens. Although GC-MS is still commonly used in practice, many laboratories have developed and successfully validated methods for LC-MS(-MS) that can detect a large number of compounds in the limited sample volume available. In addition, several enzyme immunoassays have been commercialized for the detection of drugs of abuse in oral fluid samples, enabling the fast screening and selection of presumably positive samples. A number of concerns are discussed, such as the variability in the volume of sample collected and its implications in terms of quantitative measurements, and the drug recoveries of the many different specimen collection systems on the market. Additional considerations that also receive attention are the importance of providing complete validation data with respect to analyte stability, matrix effect, and the choice of collection method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nele Samyn
- Laboratory of Toxicology, National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology (N.I.C.C.), Federal Public Service Justice, Vilvoordsesteenweg 100, 1120 Brussels, Belgium.
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Marsden J, Stillwell G, Barlow H, Boys A, Taylor C, Hunt N, Farrell M. An evaluation of a brief motivational intervention among young ecstasy and cocaine users: no effect on substance and alcohol use outcomes. Addiction 2006; 101:1014-26. [PMID: 16771893 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01290.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate whether a stimulant- and alcohol-focused brief motivational intervention induces positive behaviour change among young, regular users of MDMA ('ecstasy'), cocaine powder and crack cocaine. DESIGN AND MEASUREMENTS A randomized trial of the intervention versus a control group who received written health risk information materials only. All participants completed a baseline self-assessment questionnaire before randomization. Outcome measures were self-reported period prevalence abstinence from ecstasy, cocaine powder and crack cocaine and the frequency and amount of stimulant and alcohol use in the previous 90 days, recorded at 6-month follow-up via self-completion questionnaire and personal interview. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING A total of 342 adolescent and young adult stimulant users (aged 16-22 years) were recruited and 87% were followed-up. The intervention was delivered by a team of 12 agency youth drug workers and two researchers at five locations in Greater London and south-east England. FINDINGS There were no significant differences in abstinence for ecstasy, cocaine powder or crack cocaine use between the experimental and control groups. Contrasting follow-up with baseline self-reports, there were no between-group effects for changes in the frequency or amount of stimulant or alcohol use. Participant follow-up data suggested that the baseline assessment was a contributing factor in within-group behaviour change among experimental and control condition participants. CONCLUSIONS Our brief motivational intervention was no more effective at inducing behaviour change than the provision of information alone. We hypothesize that research recruitment, baseline self-assessment and contact with study personnel are influences that induce positive reactive effects on stimulant use.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Marsden
- Division of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK.
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Cognard E, Bouchonnet S, Staub C. Validation of a gas chromatography—Ion trap tandem mass spectrometry for simultaneous analyse of cocaine and its metabolites in saliva. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2006; 41:925-34. [PMID: 16497466 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2006.01.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2005] [Revised: 01/17/2006] [Accepted: 01/19/2006] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine (COC) is one of the most widely used drugs of abuse. Therefore numerous procedures are published in the literature to propose an analysis of this substance and related compounds in different matrixes. In the same way, the authors have described, in a previous work, the simultaneous analysis of COC and three of its metabolites in hair by gas chromatography-ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) using chemical ionization with isobutane. The present paper investigated the ability to transfer this convenient existing method for hair to another matrix, in occurrence saliva. The aim of this work was then to verify that the whole procedure (solid phase extraction (SPE) and analytical method) was also convenient to analyse simultaneously COC and three of its metabolites in this matrix. Therefore this sensitive GC-MS/MS method has been studied for the simultaneous analysis of COC, anhydroecgonine methylester (AEME), ecgonine methylester (EME) and cocaethylene (COET) in saliva samples. The method has been validated and its performances were evaluated in terms of trueness and precision using quality control (QC) samples. For quantification, the following ranges were found appropriate: 5-500 ng/ml for EME, 2-500 ng/ml for COC and COET; AEME could only be determined "semi-quantitatively" between 2 and 200 ng/ml according to our chosen acceptance criteria. Suggested dissociation pathways have also been proposed to interpret the obtained spectra.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Cognard
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Geneva, Avenue de Champel 9, CH 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
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Wood M, Laloup M, Ramirez Fernandez MDM, Jenkins KM, Young MS, Ramaekers JG, De Boeck G, Samyn N. Quantitative analysis of multiple illicit drugs in preserved oral fluid by solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Forensic Sci Int 2005; 150:227-38. [PMID: 15944064 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2004] [Revised: 11/13/2004] [Accepted: 11/14/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We present a validated method for the simultaneous analysis of basic drugs which comprises a sample clean-up step, using mixed-mode solid-phase extraction (SPE), followed by LC-MS/MS analysis. Deuterated analogues for all of the analytes of interest were used for quantitation. The applied HPLC gradient ensured the elution of all the drugs examined within 14 min and produced chromatographic peaks of acceptable symmetry. Selectivity of the method was achieved by a combination of retention time, and two precursor-product ion transitions for the non-deuterated analogues. Oral fluid was collected with the Intercept, a FDA approved sampling device that is used on a large scale in the US for workplace drug testing. However, this collection system contains some ingredients (stabilizers and preservatives) that can cause substantial interferences, e.g. ion suppression or enhancement during LC-MS/MS analysis, in the absence of suitable sample pre-treatment. The use of the SPE was demonstrated to be highly effective and led to significant decreases in the interferences. Extraction was found to be both reproducible and efficient with recoveries >76% for all of the analytes. Furthermore, the processed samples were demonstrated to be stable for 48 h, except for cocaine and benzoylecgonine, where a slight negative trend was observed, but did not compromise the quantitation. In all cases the method was linear over the range investigated (2-200 microg/L) with an excellent intra-assay and inter-assay precision (coefficients of variation <10% in most cases) for QC samples spiked at a concentration of 4, 12 and 100 microg/L. Limits of quantitation were estimated to be at 2 microg/L with limits of detection ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 microg/L, which meets the requirements of SAMHSA for oral fluid testing in the workplace. The method was subsequently applied to the analysis of Intercept samples collected at the roadside by the police, and to determine MDMA and MDA levels in oral fluid samples from a controlled study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Wood
- Waters Corporation, MS Technologies Centre, Manchester, UK
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Gunnar T, Ariniemi K, Lillsunde P. Validated toxicological determination of 30 drugs of abuse as optimized derivatives in oral fluid by long column fast gas chromatography/electron impact mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2005; 40:739-753. [PMID: 15806585 DOI: 10.1002/jms.846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
An analytical procedure was developed for the simultaneous sensitive identification, screening and quantitation of 30 drugs of abuse using 250 microl of human oral fluid. The method employs sequential mixed-mode solid-phase extraction (SPE), optimized derivative formation and long-column fast gas chromatography/electron impact mass spectrometry (GC/EI-MS). After sequential SPE elution, the most sensitive and stable derivatives were formed by taking careful account of the characteristics of the active functional groups and possible steric hindrances affecting derivatization chemistry. Amphetamine-type stimulant drugs were acylated with heptafluorobutyric anhydride, benzodiazepines and Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol were silylated with N-methyl-N-(tert-butyldimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide and benzoylecgonine, codeine, ethylmorphine, 6-monoacetylmorphine, morphine, pholcodine, buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine with N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide. In addition, the following analytes were included: methadone, cocaine, alprazolam, midazolam, fentanyl and zolpidem. In GC separation, fast temperature ramping and high carrier gas flow-rate combined with long 30 m columns of i.d. 0.32 mm offered a reduction in analysis time and sharp peak shapes while still maintaining sufficient resolution and high sample capacity. Validated parameters including selectivity, linearity, accuracy, intra- and inter-day precision, extraction efficiency and limit of quantitation were all within required limits. In contrast to previously published methods, this single procedure is suitable for the simultaneous toxicological determination of the most common illicit drugs and benzodiazepines, and also zolpidem, in a small amount of oral fluid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teemu Gunnar
- National Public Health Institute, Drug Research Unit, Mannerheimintie 166, 00300 Helsinki, Finland.
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Bennett GA, Davies E, Thomas P. Is oral fluid analysis as accurate as urinalysis in detecting drug use in a treatment setting? Drug Alcohol Depend 2003; 72:265-9. [PMID: 14643943 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2003.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Technology for testing oral fluid (OF) for the presence of drugs is available for treatment services and is more attractive than urinalysis: its validity is not well established. AIMS Compare the accuracy of methods of on-site testing of OF and urine. DESIGN Comparison of the sensitivity and specificity of on-site testing of samples of OF and urine collected on the same occasion, using subsequent blind laboratory analysis of the same urine samples as the standard. SETTING British addiction treatment service. PARTICIPANTS 157 drug dependent persons, 89% with evidence of opiates, 73% male, and 85% aged between 20 and 35 years. MEASUREMENTS Assessment of presence of four drugs using SYVA ETS urinalysis and Cozart Rapiscan OF Drug Test systems. Laboratory urinalysis using microplate enzyme-immunoassay technique. RESULTS The sensitivity of OF tests and urinalysis were, respectively, for opiates 91 and 91%, methadone 91 and 94%, and benzodiazepines 6 and 72%. The specificity of OF tests and urinalysis were, respectively, for opiates 78 and 67%, methadone 90 and 95%, and benzodiazepines 95 and 96%. Amphetamine usage was rare. CONCLUSIONS OF testing is as accurate as urinalysis in detecting the presence of opiates and methadone, and the absence of methadone and benzodiazepines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald A Bennett
- Addictions Service, Sedman Unit, Dorset HealthCare NHS Trust, 16-18 Tower Road, Bournemouth BH1 4LP, UK.
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21
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Kim I, Barnes AJ, Schepers R, Moolchan ET, Wilson L, Cooper G, Reid C, Hand C, Huestis MA. Sensitivity and specificity of the Cozart microplate EIA cocaine oral fluid at proposed screening and confirmation cutoffs. Clin Chem 2003; 49:1498-503. [PMID: 12928231 DOI: 10.1373/49.9.1498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oral fluid is currently being evaluated as an alternative matrix for monitoring illicit drugs in federally mandated workplace drug testing, for addiction treatment programs, and for driving under the influence testing. The sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency of the Cozart Microplate EIA Cocaine Oral Fluid Kit (COC ELISA) were determined by comparison with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) results at screening and confirmation cutoffs proposed in the US and UK. METHOD Oral fluid was collected by expectoration after citric acid candy stimulation or with Salivette neutral cotton swabs or Salivette citric acid-treated cotton swabs before and after cocaine (COC) administration. Specimens (n = 1468) were analyzed with the COC ELISA for screening and with solid-phase extraction followed by GC/MS for confirmation. Three screening cutoffs (10, 20, and 30 microg/L) and four GC/MS cutoffs (2.5, 8, 10, and 15 microg/L COC, benzoylecgonine, and/or ecgonine methyl ester) were evaluated. GC/MS limit of quantification was 2.5 micro g/L for all analytes. RESULTS COC ELISA interassay imprecision (CV; n = 19) was 16% at 16.7 microg/L and 12% at 81.8 microg/L. With the 2.5, 8, 10, and 15 microg/L GC/MS cutoffs, 59.0%, 54.7%, 52.7%, and 48.7% of the oral fluid specimens were positive, respectively. Sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency were 92.2%, 84.7%, and 88.8%, respectively, for the suggested Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) cutoffs and 90.2%, 89.2%, and 89.7% for cutoffs currently used in the UK. CONCLUSIONS COC ELISA had suitable sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency for identifying COC exposure at both the proposed SAMHSA and UK cutoffs. Sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency were >84% for both cutoffs, but 92 additional true-positive samples were identified with the SAMHSA cutoffs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Insook Kim
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 5500 Nathan Shock Dr., Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Brettell
- Forensic Science Laboratory Bureau, New Jersey State Police, Box 7068, West Trenton, New Jersey 08628-0068, USA
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de Jager L, Andrews AR. Development of a screening method for cocaine and cocaine metabolites in saliva using hollow fiber membrane solvent microextraction. Anal Chim Acta 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(02)00063-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Current awareness in phytochemical analysis. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS : PCA 2001; 12:215-222. [PMID: 11705030 DOI: 10.1002/pca.555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
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