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MacInnis CI, Luong LT, Pernal SF. A tale of two parasites: Responses of honey bees infected with Nosema ceranae and Lotmaria passim. Sci Rep 2023; 13:22515. [PMID: 38110440 PMCID: PMC10728187 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-49189-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Nosema ceranae and Lotmaria passim are two commonly encountered digestive tract parasites of the honey bee that have been associated with colony losses in Canada, the United States, and Europe. Though honey bees can be co-infected with these parasites, we still lack basic information regarding how they impact bee health at the individual and colony level. Using locally-isolated parasite strains, we investigated the effect of single and co-infections of these parasites on individual honey bee survival, and their responsiveness to sucrose. Results showed that a single N. ceranae infection is more virulent than both single L. passim infections and co-infections. Honey bees singly infected with N. ceranae reached < 50% survival eight days earlier than those inoculated with L. passim alone, and four days earlier than those inoculated with both parasites. Honey bees infected with either one, or both, parasites had increased responsiveness to sucrose compared to uninfected bees, which could correspond to higher levels of hunger and increased energetic stress. Together, these findings suggest that N. ceranae and L. passim pose threats to bee health, and that the beekeeping industry should monitor for both parasites in an effort correlate pathogen status with changes in colony-level productivity and survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney I MacInnis
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E9, Canada.
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Beaverlodge Research Farm, P.O. Box 29, Beaverlodge, AB, T0H 0C0, Canada.
| | - Lien T Luong
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - Stephen F Pernal
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Beaverlodge Research Farm, P.O. Box 29, Beaverlodge, AB, T0H 0C0, Canada.
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2
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Berbeć E, Migdał P, Cebrat M, Roman A, Murawska A. Honeybee age and inoculum concentration as factors affecting the development of Nosema ceranae infection. THE EUROPEAN ZOOLOGICAL JOURNAL 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/24750263.2022.2121009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- E. Berbeć
- Bee Division, Department of Environment, Hygiene and Animal Welfare, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - P. Migdał
- Bee Division, Department of Environment, Hygiene and Animal Welfare, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - M. Cebrat
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Immunology, Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - A. Roman
- Bee Division, Department of Environment, Hygiene and Animal Welfare, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - A. Murawska
- Bee Division, Department of Environment, Hygiene and Animal Welfare, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
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Lopes AR, Martín-Hernández R, Higes M, Segura SK, Henriques D, Pinto MA. Colonisation Patterns of Nosema ceranae in the Azores Archipelago. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9070320. [PMID: 35878337 PMCID: PMC9323992 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9070320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Nosema ceranae is a highly prevalent pathogen of Apis mellifera, which is distributed worldwide. However, there may still exist isolated areas that remain free of N. ceranae. Herein, we used molecular tools to survey the Azores to detect N. ceranae and unravel its colonisation patterns. To that end, we sampled 474 colonies from eight islands in 2014/2015 and 91 from four islands in 2020. The findings revealed that N. ceranae was not only present but also the dominant species in the Azores. In 2014/2015, N. apis was rare and N. ceranae prevalence varied between 2.7% in São Jorge and 50.7% in Pico. In 2020, N. ceranae prevalence increased significantly (p < 0.001) in Terceira and São Jorge also showing higher infection levels. The spatiotemporal patterns suggest that N. ceranae colonised the archipelago recently, and it rapidly spread across other islands, where at least two independent introductions might have occurred. Flores and Santa Maria have escaped the N. ceranae invasion, and it is remarkable that Santa Maria is also free of Varroa destructor, which makes it one of the last places in Europe where the honey bee remains naive to these two major biotic stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Lopes
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal; (A.R.L.); (D.H.)
| | - Raquel Martín-Hernández
- Laboratorio de Patología Apícola, IRIAF—Instituto Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario y Forestal, Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental (CIAPA), Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, Camino de San Martín, 19180 Marchamalo, Spain; (R.M.-H.); (M.H.)
- Instituto de Recursos Humanos para la Ciencia y la Tecnología (INCRECYT-FSE/EC-ESF), Fundación Parque Científico y Tecnológico de Castilla—La Mancha, 02006 Albacete, Spain
| | - Mariano Higes
- Laboratorio de Patología Apícola, IRIAF—Instituto Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Agroalimentario y Forestal, Centro de Investigación Apícola y Agroambiental (CIAPA), Consejería de Agricultura de la Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, Camino de San Martín, 19180 Marchamalo, Spain; (R.M.-H.); (M.H.)
| | - Sara Kafafi Segura
- Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28014 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Dora Henriques
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal; (A.R.L.); (D.H.)
| | - Maria Alice Pinto
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal; (A.R.L.); (D.H.)
- Correspondence:
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Marín-García PJ, Peyre Y, Ahuir-Baraja AE, Garijo MM, Llobat L. The Role of Nosema ceranae (Microsporidia: Nosematidae) in Honey Bee Colony Losses and Current Insights on Treatment. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9030130. [PMID: 35324858 PMCID: PMC8952814 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9030130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Honeybee populations have locally and temporally declined in the last few years because of both biotic and abiotic factors. Among the latter, one of the most important reasons is infection by the microsporidia Nosema ceranae, which is the etiological agent of type C nosemosis. This species was first described in Asian honeybees (Apis cerana). Nowadays, domestic honeybees (Apis mellifera) worldwide are also becoming infected due to globalization. Type C nosemosis can be asymptomatic or can cause important damage to bees, such as changes in temporal polyethism, energy and oxidative stress, immunity loss, and decreased average life expectancy. It causes drastic reductions in workers, numbers of broods, and honey production, finally leading to colony loss. Common treatment is based on fumagillin, an antibiotic with side effects and relatively poor efficiency, which is banned in the European Union. Natural products, probiotics, food supplements, nutraceuticals, and other veterinary drugs are currently under study and might represent alternative treatments. Prophylaxis and management of affected colonies are essential to control the disease. While N. ceranae is one potential cause of bee losses in a colony, other factors must also be considered, especially synergies between microsporidia and the use of insecticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Jesús Marín-García
- Department of Animal Production and Health, Veterinary Public Health and Food Science and Technology (PASAPTA), Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, 46115 Valencia, Spain; (P.J.M.-G.); (A.E.A.-B.)
| | - Yoorana Peyre
- Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, 46115 Valencia, Spain;
| | - Ana Elena Ahuir-Baraja
- Department of Animal Production and Health, Veterinary Public Health and Food Science and Technology (PASAPTA), Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, 46115 Valencia, Spain; (P.J.M.-G.); (A.E.A.-B.)
| | - María Magdalena Garijo
- Department of Animal Production and Health, Veterinary Public Health and Food Science and Technology (PASAPTA), Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, 46115 Valencia, Spain; (P.J.M.-G.); (A.E.A.-B.)
- Correspondence: (M.M.G.); (L.L.)
| | - Lola Llobat
- Department of Animal Production and Health, Veterinary Public Health and Food Science and Technology (PASAPTA), Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, 46115 Valencia, Spain; (P.J.M.-G.); (A.E.A.-B.)
- Correspondence: (M.M.G.); (L.L.)
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Borba RS, Hoover SE, Currie RW, Giovenazzo P, Guarna MM, Foster LJ, Zayed A, Pernal SF. Phenomic analysis of the honey bee pathogen-web and its dynamics on colony productivity, health and social immunity behaviors. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0263273. [PMID: 35100308 PMCID: PMC8803170 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many pathogens and parasites have evolved to overwhelm and suppress their host's immune system. Nevertheless, the interactive effects of these agents on colony productivity and wintering success have been relatively unexplored, particularly in large-scale phenomic studies. As a defense mechanism, honey bees have evolved remarkable social behaviors to defend against pathogen and parasite challenges, which reduce the impact of disease and improve colony health. To investigate the complex role of pathogens, parasites and social immunity behaviors in relation to colony productivity and outcomes, we extensively studied colonies at several locations across Canada for two years. In 2016 and 2017, colonies founded with 1-year-old queens of diverse genetic origin were evaluated, which represented a generalized subset of the Canadian bee population. During each experimental year (May through April), we collected phenotypic data and sampled colonies for pathogen analysis in a standardized manner. Measures included: colony size and productivity (colony weight, cluster size, honey production, and sealed brood population), social immunity traits (hygienic behavior, instantaneous mite population growth rate, and grooming behavior), as well as quantification of gut parasites (Nosema spp., and Lotmaria passim), viruses (DWV-A, DWV-B, BQCV and SBV) and external parasites (Varroa destructor). Our goal was to examine: 1) correlations between pathogens and colony phenotypes; 2) the dynamics of pathogens and parasites on colony phenotypes and productivity traits; and 3) the effects of social immunity behaviors on colony pathogen load. Our results show that colonies expressing high levels of some social immunity behaviors were associated with low levels of pathogens/parasites, including viruses, Nosema spp., and V. destructor. In addition, we determined that elevated viral and Nosema spp. levels were associated with low levels of colony productivity, and that five out of six pathogenic factors measured were negatively associated with colony size and weight in both fall and spring periods. Finally, this study also provides information about the incidence and abundance of pathogens, colony phenotypes, and further disentangles their inter-correlation, so as to better understand drivers of honey bee colony health and productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata S. Borba
- Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Beaverlodge Research Farm, Beaverlodge, Alberta, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Shelley E. Hoover
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Robert W. Currie
- Department of Entomology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Pierre Giovenazzo
- Département de Biologie, faculté des sciences et génie, Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, Canada
| | - M. Marta Guarna
- Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Beaverlodge Research Farm, Beaverlodge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Leonard J. Foster
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Amro Zayed
- Department of Biology, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stephen F. Pernal
- Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Beaverlodge Research Farm, Beaverlodge, Alberta, Canada
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MacInnis CI, Keddie BA, Pernal SF. Honey bees with a drinking problem: potential routes of Nosema ceranae spore transmission. Parasitology 2021; 149:1-8. [PMID: 35241188 PMCID: PMC10090605 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182021001827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Nosema apis and N. ceranae are the two causative agents of Nosema disease in adult honey bees (Apis mellifera L.). Nosema apis has been a recognized parasite for over a century and its epizootiology is well known. In contrast, N. ceranae is an emerging parasite of honey bees, which is now globally prevalent and the dominant Nosema spp. in many parts of the world. Despite this, many gaps in our knowledge exist regarding this species. For example, we do not fully understand all of the routes of transmission of N. ceranae among bees, or how long this parasite is capable of surviving in honey bee colonies. Here we investigated the viability and infectivity of N. ceranae spores in water and 2 M sucrose over time after storage at 33, 20, −12 and −20°C. Spores in both 2 M sucrose and water maintained high viability, except in water at −20°C over the course of the 6-week experiment. Infectivity was variable for spores after storage at all four temperatures, but all were infective at the last time point. The results provide evidence for cold tolerance and suggest that both water and 2 M sucrose (fall bee feed) could act as routes of transmission for N. ceranae. This work also contains information that may help influence management recommendations for the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney I. MacInnis
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, CanadaT6G 2E9
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Beaverlodge Research Farm, P.O. Box 29, Beaverlodge, Alberta, CanadaT0H 0C0
| | - B. Andrew Keddie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, CanadaT6G 2E9
| | - Stephen F. Pernal
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Beaverlodge Research Farm, P.O. Box 29, Beaverlodge, Alberta, CanadaT0H 0C0
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Duflot M, Midelet G, Bourgau O, Buchmann K, Gay M. Optimization of tools for the detection and identification of Cryptocotyle metacercariae in fish: Digestion method and viability studies. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2021; 44:1777-1784. [PMID: 34289140 PMCID: PMC9290975 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.13495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Some trematode metacercariae, including marine digeneans belonging to the genus Cryptocotyle, induce black spots in target tissues due to the attraction of fish host melanophores. To promote precise quantification of infection, the counting of black spots has to be confirmed by reliable quantification of metacercariae after tissue digestion. This process ensures the isolation of undamaged parasites for morphological and molecular identification. The aim of this work was to optimize the pepsin digestion protocol and to assess the duration of viability of Cryptocotyle metacercariae in fish post-mortem (pm). Four digestion protocols were compared by measuring the viability rate of metacercariae. The present study shows that the orbital digestion method was the least destructive for metacercariae and allowed better quantification of Cryptocotyle infection. Moreover, morphological identification seemed reliable up to 8 days pm for Cryptocotyle infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen Duflot
- ANSES, Laboratory for Food SafetyBoulogne‐sur‐MerFrance
- University of Littoral Côte d'OpaleBoulogne‐sur‐MerFrance
| | | | - Odile Bourgau
- ANSES, Laboratory for Food SafetyBoulogne‐sur‐MerFrance
| | - Kurt Buchmann
- Laboratory of Aquatic Pathobiology, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical SciencesUniversity of CopenhagenFrederiksberg CDenmark
| | - Mélanie Gay
- ANSES, Laboratory for Food SafetyBoulogne‐sur‐MerFrance
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8
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Epidemiology of Nosema spp. and the effect of indoor and outdoor wintering on honey bee colony population and survival in the Canadian Prairies. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0258801. [PMID: 34695141 PMCID: PMC8544878 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0258801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The epidemiology of Nosema spp. in honey bees, Apis mellifera, may be affected by winter conditions as cold temperatures and differing wintering methods (indoor and outdoor) provide varying levels of temperature stress and defecation flight opportunities. Across the Canadian Prairies, including Alberta, the length and severity of winter vary among geographic locations. This study investigates the seasonal pattern of Nosema abundance in two Alberta locations using indoor and outdoor wintering methods and its impact on bee population, survival, and commercial viability. This study found that N. ceranae had a distinct seasonal pattern in Alberta, with high spore abundance in spring, declining to low levels in the summer and fall. The results showed that fall Nosema monitoring might not be the best indicator of treatment needs or future colony health outcomes. There was no clear pattern for differences in N. ceranae abundance by location or wintering method. However, wintering method affected survival with colonies wintered indoors having lower mortality and more rapid spring population build-up than outdoor-wintered colonies. The results suggest that the existing Nosema threshold should be reinvestigated with wintering method in mind to provide more favorable outcomes for beekeepers. Average Nosema abundance in the spring was a significant predictor of end-of-study winter colony mortality, highlighting the importance of spring Nosema monitoring and treatments.
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Duquesne V, Gastaldi C, Del Cont A, Cougoule N, Bober A, Brunain M, Chioveanu G, Demicoli N, Paulus PD, Somalo PF, Filipova M, Forsgren E, Granato A, Gurgulova K, Heinikainen S, Kärssin A, Kinduriene I, Köglberger H, Oureilidis K, Ozolina Z, Pijacek M, Ocepek MP, Schäfer MO, Gajger IT, Valerio MJ, Wakefield M, Franco S. An international inter-laboratory study on Nosema spp. spore detection and quantification through microscopic examination of crushed honey bee abdomens. J Microbiol Methods 2021; 184:106183. [PMID: 33647360 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2021.106183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Nosemosis is a microsporidian disease causing mortality and weakening of honey bee colonies, especially in the event of co-exposure to other sources of stress. As a result, the disease is regulated in some countries. Reliable and harmonised diagnosis is crucial to ensure the quality of surveillance and research results. For this reason, the first European Interlaboratory Comparison (ILC) was organised in 2017 in order to assess both the methods and the results obtained by National Reference Laboratories (NRLs) in counting Nosema spp. spores by microscopy. Implementing their own routine conditions of analysis, the 23 participants were asked to perform an assay on a panel of ten positive and negative samples of crushed honey bee abdomens. They were asked to report results from a qualitative and quantitative standpoint. The assessment covered specificity, sensitivity, trueness and precision. Quantitative results were analysed in compliance with international standards NF ISO 13528 (2015) and NF ISO 5725-2 (1994). Three results showed a lack of precision and five a lack of trueness. However, overall results indicated a global specificity of 98% and a global sensitivity of 100%, thus demonstrating the advanced performance of the microscopic methods applied to Nosema spores by the NRLs. Therefore, the study concluded that using microscopy to detect and quantify spores of Nosema spp. was reliable and valid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Véronique Duquesne
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), European Union Reference Laboratory for Bee Health, Honey Bee Pathology Unit, 105 route des Chappes - CS 20111, 06902 Sophia Antipolis, France.
| | - Cristina Gastaldi
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), European Union Reference Laboratory for Bee Health, Honey Bee Pathology Unit, 105 route des Chappes - CS 20111, 06902 Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Aurélie Del Cont
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), European Union Reference Laboratory for Bee Health, Honey Bee Pathology Unit, 105 route des Chappes - CS 20111, 06902 Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Nicolas Cougoule
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), European Union Reference Laboratory for Bee Health, Honey Bee Pathology Unit, 105 route des Chappes - CS 20111, 06902 Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Andrzej Bober
- National Veterinary Research Institute, Department of Honey Bee Diseases, 57 Partyzantow Avenue, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Marleen Brunain
- Laboratory for Molecular Entomology and Bee Pathology, Universiteit Gent, Krijgslaan 281, S2, 2de verdiep, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Gabriela Chioveanu
- Institute for Diagnosis and Animal Health, NRL for Honey Bee Diseases and Other Useful Insects, Dr. N. Staicovici street No. 63, sector 5, 050557 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Noel Demicoli
- National Veterinary Laboratory, Abattoir street, Albert Town, MRS1123 Marsa, Malta
| | - Petra Deakne Paulus
- NFCSO Veterinary Diagnostic Directorate Molecular Biology Laboratory, Tábornok utca 2, 1143 Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - Miriam Filipova
- State Veterinary and Food Institute, Janoskova 1611/58, 026 01 Dolny Kubin, Slovakia
| | - Eva Forsgren
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Ecology, Box 7044, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Anna Granato
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, NRL for Beekeeping, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Kalinka Gurgulova
- NRL Bee Health, NDR VMI, 15 "Pencho Slaveykov" Blvd, 1606 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Sirpa Heinikainen
- Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira, Veterinary Bacteriology, Research Department, Neulaniementie 4, 70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Age Kärssin
- Veterinary and Food Laboratory, Kreutzwaldi 30, 51006 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Irena Kinduriene
- National Food and Veterinary Risk Assessment Institute, J. Kairiukscio 10, LT-08409 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Hemma Köglberger
- AGES, Department for Apiculture and Bee Protection, Spargelfeldstraß 3 191, 1226 Vienna, Austria
| | - Konstantinos Oureilidis
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR", Lejupes str. 3, 1076 Riga, Latvia
| | - Zanda Ozolina
- Thessalonica Veterinary Center, Laboratory of Bee Diseases, 26th October str. 80, 54627 Thessalonica, Greece
| | - Martin Pijacek
- State Veterinary Institute Olomouc, NRL for Honey Bee Health, Jakoubka ze Stribra 1, 77900 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Metka Pislak Ocepek
- Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, National Veterinary Institute Laboratory for Health Care of Bees, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marc Oliver Schäfer
- National Reference Laboratory for Bee Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald, -Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Ivana Tlak Gajger
- Laboratory for Honeybee Diseases APISlab, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department for Biology and Pathology of Fish and Bees, Heinzelova 55, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Maria José Valerio
- Instituto Nacional Investigaçao Agraria e Veterinaria, Rua Genaral Moraes Sarmento, 1500-311 Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Stéphanie Franco
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), European Union Reference Laboratory for Bee Health, Honey Bee Pathology Unit, 105 route des Chappes - CS 20111, 06902 Sophia Antipolis, France
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