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Rendón-Herrera JJ, Pérez-Jiménez JC, Saavedra-Sotelo NC. Regional variation in multiple paternity in the brown smooth-hound shark Mustelus henlei from the northeastern Pacific. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2022; 100:1399-1406. [PMID: 35349175 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.15050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Multiple paternity (MP) in the brown smooth-hound shark (Mustelus henlei) was assessed in 15 litters (15 mothers and 97 embryos) collected in the northern Gulf of California of which 86.7% were sired by more than one male (i.e., from 2 to 4 sires). When taken together with results from previous studies, this record indicates that there is regional variation in MP in M. henlei in the northeastern Pacific. This pattern is associated with variations in the reproductive traits of each population (e.g., female size and litter size). In the Gulf of California, the results of a generalized linear model (GLZ) indicated that the litters of larger females had a higher probability of MP compared to those of smaller females.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nancy C Saavedra-Sotelo
- Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Mazatlán, Mexico
- Cátedras CONACYT, Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, CDMX, Mexico
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2
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Lyons K, Kacev D, Mull CG. An inconvenient tooth: Evaluating female choice in multiple paternity using an evolutionarily and ecologically important vertebrate clade. Mol Ecol 2021; 30:1574-1593. [PMID: 33586211 PMCID: PMC8251896 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Understanding mating systems is a pillar of behavioural ecology, placing the complex interactions between females and males into a reproductive context. The field of multiple paternity, the phenomenon whereby many sires contribute to an individual litter, has traditionally viewed females as passive players in a male–male competitive framework. With the emergence of feminist perspectives in ecological fields, novel alternative mechanisms and evolutionary theories across invertebrate and vertebrate taxa recognize females are active stakeholders in the reproductive process. Despite their evolutionary significance, ecological diversity and myriad reproductive modes, elasmobranch (sharks, skates and rays) research lags behind other fields regarding complex biological processes, such as multiple paternity which is often ascribed to convenience polyandry. Here, we layout hypotheses and resynthesize multiple paternity literature from a female and life history perspective to highlight how alternative mechanisms influence the predominance of multiple paternity across elasmobranchs. We draw upon parallels in other invertebrate and vertebrate taxa to demonstrate how female elasmobranchs can influence multiple paternity outcomes that benefit their reproductive success. Our article challenges dogma that has resulted from years of dismissing the female perspective as important and provides a framework for future advancement using more holistic approaches to studying mating systems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dovi Kacev
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, CA, USA
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3
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Lamarca F, Vianna M, Vilasboa A. The first reproductive parameters and evidence of multiple paternity in one new spiny dogfish species, Squalus albicaudus (Squaliformes, Squalidae). JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2020; 97:1268-1272. [PMID: 32725818 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Understanding elasmobranch reproductive biology is necessary for species conservation. Multiple paternity (MP) has been reported for elasmobranchs, and this study investigates the reproductive aspects and mating system (paternity genetic analyses) for Squalus albicaudus. Thirteen pregnant females were analysed concerning reproductive parameters, and the mating system was assessed for nine females and their litters. The study found a mean fecundity of 2.84 pups per litter without correlation between total female length and the number of embryos per litter. One litter showed evidence of MP, indicating the presence of polyandrous behaviour of the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Lamarca
- Laboratório de Biologia e Tecnologia Pesqueira, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcântara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Vianna
- Laboratório de Biologia e Tecnologia Pesqueira, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- IMAN - Instituto Museu Aquario Marinho do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Anderson Vilasboa
- Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biologia Roberto Alcântara Gomes, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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4
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Duchatelet L, Oury N, Mallefet J, Magalon H. In the intimacy of the darkness: Genetic polyandry in deep-sea luminescent lanternsharks Etmopterus spinax and Etmopterus molleri (Squaliformes, Etmopteridae). JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2020; 96:1523-1529. [PMID: 32246461 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Multiple paternity seems common within elasmobranchs. Focusing on two deep-sea shark species, the velvet belly lanternshark (Etmopterus spinax) and the slendertail lanternshark (Etmopterus molleri) we inferred the paternity in 31 E. spinax litters from Norway (three to 18 embryos per litter) and six E. molleri litters from Japan (three to six embryos), using 21 and 10 specific microsatellites, respectively. At least two E. spinax litters were sired from multiple fathers each, with highly variable paternal skew (1:1 to 9:1). Conversely, no clear signal of genetic polyandry was found in E. molleri.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Duchatelet
- Marine Biology Laboratory, Earth and Life Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Oury
- UMR ENTROPIE (Université de La Réunion, IRD, IFREMER, Université de Nouvelle-Calédonie, CNRS), Université de La Réunion, Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, St Denis Cedex 09, La Réunion, France
- Laboratoire Cogitamus, Paris, France
| | - Jérôme Mallefet
- Marine Biology Laboratory, Earth and Life Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Hélène Magalon
- UMR ENTROPIE (Université de La Réunion, IRD, IFREMER, Université de Nouvelle-Calédonie, CNRS), Université de La Réunion, Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, St Denis Cedex 09, La Réunion, France
- Laboratoire Cogitamus, Paris, France
- Laboratoire d'Excellence CORAIL, Perpignan, France
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5
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Barker AM, Frazier BS, Gelsleichter J, Grubbs RD, Hollenbeck CM, Portnoy DS. High Rates of Genetic Polyandry in the Blacknose Shark, Carcharhinus acronotus. COPEIA 2019. [DOI: 10.1643/cg-19-180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M. Barker
- Marine Genomics Laboratory, Department of Life Sciences, Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Dr., Corpus Christi, Texas 78412; (AMB) ; and (DSP) . Send reprint requests to AMB
| | - Bryan S. Frazier
- South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, Marine Resources Research Institute, 217 Ft. Johnson Rd., Charleston, South Carolina 29412;
| | | | - R. Dean Grubbs
- Florida State University Coastal and Marine Laboratory, 3618 Hwy 98, St. Teresa, Florida 32358;
| | | | - David S. Portnoy
- Marine Genomics Laboratory, Department of Life Sciences, Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Dr., Corpus Christi, Texas 78412; (AMB) ; and (DSP) . Send reprint requests to AMB
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6
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Rossouw C, Wintner SP, Bester-Van Der Merwe AE. Assessing multiple paternity in three commercially exploited shark species: Mustelus mustelus, Carcharhinus obscurus and Sphyrna lewini. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2016; 89:1125-41. [PMID: 27237109 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.12996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
In this study, multiple paternity (MP) was investigated in three commercially important shark species, common smoothhound Mustelus mustelus, dusky shark Carcharhinus obscurus and scalloped hammerhead Sphyrna lewini occurring in southern Africa. Reduced marker panels of between five and six microsatellite loci were constructed for each species and used to genotype and assess the presence of MP in a total of 60 M. mustelus individuals from six litters, 90 C. obscurus individuals from 14 litters and 54 S. lewini individuals from 13 litters. Analysis in GERUD and COLONY revealed the presence of MP in all three species. Multiple paternities were observed in 67, 35 and 46% of the litters of M. mustelus, C. obscurus and S. lewini, with corresponding average sire size of 1·6, 1·4 and 2·0, respectively. The variation in the rate of MP among the three species is in accordance with previous studies whilst the comparatively high frequency of MP observed for M. mustelus, matches what has previously been reported for shark species demonstrating aggregation behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Rossouw
- Department of Genetics, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag 1X, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - S P Wintner
- KwaZulu-Natal Sharks Board and Biomedical Resource Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 4000, South Africa
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7
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Marino IAM, Riginella E, Gristina M, Rasotto MB, Zane L, Mazzoldi C. Multiple paternity and hybridization in two smooth-hound sharks. Sci Rep 2015; 5:12919. [PMID: 26257113 PMCID: PMC4530440 DOI: 10.1038/srep12919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple paternity appears to be a common trait of elasmobranch mating systems, with its occurrence likely driven by convenience, due to females seeking to minimize the stress of male harassment. Here we use molecular markers to analyse the frequency of multiple paternity in two related viviparous sharks, Mustelus mustelus and Mustelus punctulatus. We first applied molecular methods to assign pregnant females, embryos and additional reference adults (N = 792) to one of the two species. Paternity analysis was performed using a total of 9 polymorphic microsatellites on 19 females and 204 embryos of M. mustelus, and on 13 females and 303 embryos of M. punctulatus. Multiple paternity occurs in both species, with 47% of M. mustelus and 54% of M. punctulatus litters sired by at least two fathers. Female fecundity is not influenced by multiple mating and in 56% of polyandrous litters paternity is skewed, with one male siring most of the pups. Genetic analyses also revealed hybridization between the two species, with a M. punctulatus female bearing pups sired by a M. mustelus male. The frequency of polyandrous litters in these species is consistent with aspects of their reproductive biology, such as synchronous ovulation and possible occurrence of breeding aggregations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria A M Marino
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Emilio Riginella
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Michele Gristina
- IAMC-CNR, via Luigi Vaccara 61, 91026 Mazara del Vallo (TP), Italy
| | - Maria B Rasotto
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Zane
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Carlotta Mazzoldi
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35121 Padova, Italy
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8
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Tillett BJ, Meekan MG, Field IC. Dietary overlap and partitioning among three sympatric carcharhinid sharks. ENDANGER SPECIES RES 2014. [DOI: 10.3354/esr00615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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9
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Portnoy DS, Hollenbeck CM, Johnston JS, Casman HM, Gold JR. Parthenogenesis in a whitetip reef shark Triaenodon obesus involves a reduction in ploidy. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2014; 85:502-508. [PMID: 24905881 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.12415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Genetic analysis of a female whitetip reef shark Triaenodon obesus and her stillborn pup, assumed to be of parthenogenetic origin, revealed that the pup was homozygous at all 24 nuclear-encoded microsatellites assayed, consistent with the idea that diploidy in the pup had been restored via terminal fusion. Flow cytometric analysis, however, indicated that the genome size of the pup was no more than half that of the mother, and microscopy revealed that nuclear volume was c. 1.73 times larger in the mother than in the pup. Together these data suggest that the pup was genetically haploid, developing directly from an unfertilized egg; as far as is known, this is the first observation of a spontaneously produced haploid vertebrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Portnoy
- Department of Life Sciences, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi, TX, 78412, U.S.A.; Harte Research Institute, Marine Genomics Laboratory, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi, TX, 78412, U.S.A
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10
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Mourier J, Buray N, Schultz JK, Clua E, Planes S. Genetic network and breeding patterns of a sicklefin lemon shark (Negaprion acutidens) population in the Society Islands, French Polynesia. PLoS One 2013; 8:e73899. [PMID: 23967354 PMCID: PMC3742621 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0073899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2013] [Accepted: 07/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human pressures have put many top predator populations at risk of extinction. Recent years have seen alarming declines in sharks worldwide, while their resilience remains poorly understood. Studying the ecology of small populations of marine predators is a priority to better understand their ability to withstand anthropogenic and environmental stressors. In the present study, we monitored a naturally small island population of 40 adult sicklefin lemon sharks in Moorea, French Polynesia over 5 years. We reconstructed the genetic relationships among individuals and determined the population's mating system. The genetic network illustrates that all individuals, except one, are interconnected at least through one first order genetic relationship. While this species developed a clear inbreeding avoidance strategy involving dispersal and migration, the small population size, low number of breeders, and the fragmented environment characterizing these tropical islands, limits its complete effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann Mourier
- LabEx CORAIL - USR 3278 CNRS-EPHE, Centre de Recherche Insulaire et Observatoire de l'Environnement (CRIOBE), Papetoai, Moorea, French Polynesia.
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11
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Boomer JJ, Harcourt RG, Francis MP, Walker TI, Braccini JM, Stow AJ. Frequency of multiple paternity in gummy shark, Mustelus antarcticus, and rig, Mustelus lenticulatus, and the implications of mate encounter rate, postcopulatory influences, and reproductive mode. J Hered 2013; 104:371-9. [PMID: 23505312 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/est010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) show an amazing diversity of reproductive modes and behaviors. Multiple paternity (MP) has been identified in all species where more than 1 litter has been investigated; yet neither direct nor indirect benefits from MP have been determined in elasmobranchs. This has led to the suggestion that MP in this group may simply be a product of convenience polyandry with variation in the frequency of MP driven by differences in mate encounter rates. Here, we use molecular markers to investigate polyandry and MP in 2 closely related and commercially important species of shark, Mustelus antarcticus and Mustelus lenticulatus. In total, 328 M. antarcticus embryos originating from 29 different mothers and 75 M. lenticulatus embryos originating from 19 different mothers were genotyped using 8 microsatellite loci. We find that MP occurs in both species. However, in both species, the majority of litters were sired by a single father. Our results do not support increased fecundity per se as a driver of MP. Further, our results do not suggest that high population densities with resulting high mate encounter rates generated by breeding aggregations necessarily lead to high frequencies of MP. Importantly, we note evidence of reproductive skew within polyandrous litters, which is a predicted outcome of postcopulatory mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica J Boomer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia
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12
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Portnoy DS, Heist EJ. Molecular markers: progress and prospects for understanding reproductive ecology in elasmobranchs. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2012; 80:1120-40. [PMID: 22497375 DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2011.03206.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Application of modern molecular tools is expanding the understanding of elasmobranch reproductive ecology. High-resolution molecular markers provide information at scales ranging from the identification of reproductively isolated populations in sympatry (i.e. cryptic species) to the relationships among parents, offspring and siblings. This avenue of study has not only augmented the current understanding of the reproductive biology of elasmobranchs but has also provided novel insights that could not be obtained through experimental or observational techniques. Sharing of genetic polymorphisms across ocean basins indicates that for some species there may be gene flow on global scales. The presence, however, of morphologically similar but genetically distinct entities in sympatry suggests that reproductive isolation can occur with minimal morphological differentiation. This review discusses the recent findings in elasmobranch reproductive biology like philopatry, hybridization and polyandry while highlighting important molecular and analytical techniques. Furthermore, the review examines gaps in current knowledge and discusses how new technologies may be applied to further the understanding of elasmobranch reproductive ecology.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Portnoy
- Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Center for Biosystematics and Biodiversity, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2258, USA.
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13
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Dudgeon CL, Blower DC, Broderick D, Giles JL, Holmes BJ, Kashiwagi T, Krück NC, Morgan JAT, Tillett BJ, Ovenden JR. A review of the application of molecular genetics for fisheries management and conservation of sharks and rays. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2012; 80:1789-1843. [PMID: 22497408 DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2012.03265.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Since the first investigation 25 years ago, the application of genetic tools to address ecological and evolutionary questions in elasmobranch studies has greatly expanded. Major developments in genetic theory as well as in the availability, cost effectiveness and resolution of genetic markers were instrumental for particularly rapid progress over the last 10 years. Genetic studies of elasmobranchs are of direct importance and have application to fisheries management and conservation issues such as the definition of management units and identification of species from fins. In the future, increased application of the most recent and emerging technologies will enable accelerated genetic data production and the development of new markers at reduced costs, paving the way for a paradigm shift from gene to genome-scale research, and more focus on adaptive rather than just neutral variation. Current literature is reviewed in six fields of elasmobranch molecular genetics relevant to fisheries and conservation management (species identification, phylogeography, philopatry, genetic effective population size, molecular evolutionary rate and emerging methods). Where possible, examples from the Indo-Pacific region, which has been underrepresented in previous reviews, are emphasized within a global perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Dudgeon
- The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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14
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Fitzpatrick JL, Kempster RM, Daly-Engel TS, Collin SP, Evans JP. Assessing the potential for post-copulatory sexual selection in elasmobranchs. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2012; 80:1141-58. [PMID: 22497376 PMCID: PMC3842027 DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2012.03256.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
This review highlights the potential role that post-copulatory sexual selection plays in elasmobranch reproductive systems and the utility of this group to further understanding of evolutionary responses to the post-copulatory processes of sperm competition and cryptic female choice. The growing genetic evidence for female multiple mating (polyandry) in elasmobranchs is summarized. While polyandry appears to be common in this group, rates of multiple paternity are highly variable between species suggesting that there is large variance in the strength of post-copulatory sexual selection among elasmobranchs. Possible adaptations of traits important for post-copulatory sexual selection are then considered. Particular emphasis is devoted to explore the potential for sperm competition and cryptic female choice to influence the evolution of testes size, sperm morphology, genital morphology and sperm storage organs. Finally, it is argued that future work should take advantage of the wealth of information on these reproductive traits already available in elasmobranchs to gain a better understanding of how post-copulatory sexual selection operates in this group.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Fitzpatrick
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Animal Biology, University of Western Australia, WA 6009, Australia.
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15
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Griffiths AM, Jacoby DMP, Casane D, McHugh M, Croft DP, Genner MJ, Sims DW. First analysis of multiple paternity in an oviparous shark, the small-spotted catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula L.). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 103:166-73. [PMID: 22058410 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esr112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Multiple paternity (MP) has been demonstrated in a variety of sharks, although its prevalence and the number of sires per litter vary considerably among species. To date, such analyses have focused on viviparous species that possess only part of the wide spectrum of reproductive strategies developed in elasmobranchs. We analyzed MP in an oviparous species, the small-spotted catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula). In total, 150 neonates originating from 13 different mothers were genotyped using 12 microsatellite loci. MP was commonplace, with progeny from 92% of females sired by multiple males. This result is consistent with the reproductive biology of the species, particularly its protracted breeding season and potential for long-term sperm storage. The significance of these findings is discussed in light of small-spotted catshark behavior, which suggests that the cost of avoiding mating attempts initiated by males may be high and is therefore supportive of convenience polyandry as an explanation for MP. Eggs were followed from the time they were laid to when they hatched, offering a rare opportunity to investigate juvenile development in more detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M Griffiths
- Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, The Laboratory, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UK.
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