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Qi J, Shi F, Zhang B, Chen X, Jie X, Furumitsu K, Corush JB, Yamaguchi A, Zhang J. Insights into genetic variation and demographic history of sharpnose rays: Examinations of three species of Telatrygon (Elasmobranchii, Dasyatidae) from the Indo-West Pacific. Integr Zool 2021; 17:1063-1077. [PMID: 34932875 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Coastal and demersal chondrichthyans (sharks, rays, and skates) are expected to exhibit high levels of genetic differentiation in areas of complex geomorphology. Population genetic studies investigating the extent to which demographic history shapes the genetic structure of these fishes are rare. Here, we combination mitochondrial DNA (Cytb and ND2) and eight nuclear microsatellite loci from 244 individuals to examine the population genetic structure and demographic history of the three Indo-West Pacific species of sharpnose rays (Telatrygon zugei, Telatrygon biasa, and Trygon crozieri). High levels of genetic variation both within and between species was identified. Phylogenetic analysis partitioned haplotypes into two lineages supporting divergence of T. zugei from T. crozieri and T. biasa during the Pleistocene. Furthermore, microsatellite-based clustering analyses identified four genetic groups (i.e., T. zugei from Japan, T. zugei from coastal China, T. biasa from Gulf of Thailand, and T. crozieri from the Andaman Sea. Measurements of genetic differentiation also support these four groups. Additionally, Pleistocene demographic expansions were examined in all genetic groups. The climate oscillations and current hydrologic cycles in the Indo-West Pacific appear to be coincide with the hypothesis regarding speciation and the observed demographic history trends of the sharpnose rays. Considering the species group has, until recently, been thought to be one species, these results are critical for defining management units and guiding conservation efforts to preserve stingray biodiversity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiwei Qi
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fanglei Shi
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Baowei Zhang
- School of Life Science, Anhui University, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xiao Chen
- College of Marine Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xing Jie
- East China Sea Centre of Standard and Metrology, SOA, Shanghai, China
| | | | - Joel B Corush
- Illinois Natural History Survey, University of Illinois Champaign-Urbana, Champaign, IL, 61820
| | | | - Jie Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou, 570228, China
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Brewster LR, Cahill BV, Burton MN, Dougan C, Herr JS, Norton LI, McGuire SA, Pico M, Urban-Gedamke E, Bassos-Hull K, Tyminski JP, Hueter RE, Wetherbee BM, Shivji M, Burnie N, Ajemian MJ. First insights into the vertical habitat use of the whitespotted eagle ray Aetobatus narinari revealed by pop-up satellite archival tags. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2021; 98:89-101. [PMID: 32985701 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The whitespotted eagle ray Aetobatus narinari is a tropical to warm-temperate benthopelagic batoid that ranges widely throughout the western Atlantic Ocean. Despite conservation concerns for the species, its vertical habitat use and diving behaviour remain unknown. Patterns and drivers in the depth distribution of A. narinari were investigated at two separate locations, the western North Atlantic (Islands of Bermuda) and the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Sarasota, Florida, U.S.A.). Between 2010 and 2014, seven pop-up satellite archival tags were attached to A. narinari using three methods: a through-tail suture, an external tail-band and through-wing attachment. Retention time ranged from 0 to 180 days, with tags attached via the through-tail method retained longest. Tagged rays spent the majority of time (82.85 ± 12.17% S.D.) within the upper 10 m of the water column and, with one exception, no rays travelled deeper than ~26 m. One Bermuda ray recorded a maximum depth of 50.5 m, suggesting that these animals make excursions off the fore-reef slope of the Bermuda Platform. Individuals occupied deeper depths (7.42 ± 3.99 m S.D.) during the day versus night (4.90 ± 2.89 m S.D.), which may be explained by foraging and/or predator avoidance. Each individual experienced a significant difference in depth and temperature distributions over the diel cycle. There was evidence that mean hourly depth was best described by location and individual variation using a generalized additive mixed model approach. This is the first study to compare depth distributions of A. narinari from different locations and describe the thermal habitat for this species. Our study highlights the importance of region in describing A. narinari depth use, which may be relevant when developing management plans, whilst demonstrating that diel patterns appear to hold across individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauran R Brewster
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
| | - Brianna V Cahill
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
| | - Miranda N Burton
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
| | - Cassady Dougan
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Herr
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
| | - Laura Issac Norton
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
| | - Samantha A McGuire
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
| | - Marisa Pico
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
| | - Elizabeth Urban-Gedamke
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
| | - Kim Bassos-Hull
- Sharks and Rays Conservation Research Program, Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, Florida, USA
| | - John P Tyminski
- Sharks and Rays Conservation Research Program, Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, Florida, USA
| | - Robert E Hueter
- Sharks and Rays Conservation Research Program, Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, Florida, USA
| | - Bradley M Wetherbee
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, USA
- The Guy Harvey Research Institute, Nova Southeastern University, Dania Beach, Florida, USA
| | - Mahmood Shivji
- The Guy Harvey Research Institute, Nova Southeastern University, Dania Beach, Florida, USA
| | | | - Matthew J Ajemian
- Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
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Souza BC, Cruz VP, Almeida TRA, Sales JBL, Rodrigues-Filho LFS, Vianna M, Rotundo MM, Oliveira C, Foresti F. Genetic diversity assessment for the vulnerable migratory cownose ray Rhinoptera bonasus (Myliobatiformes: Rhinopteridae) from the southwestern Atlantic Ocean. NEOTROPICAL ICHTHYOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1590/1982-0224-2021-0077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Rhinoptera bonasus is a bento-pelagic and highly migratory species occurring from southern United States to northern Argentina. Due to overfishing effects, R. bonasus is currently at risk, classified by the IUCN Red List as vulnerable. Considering the lack of molecular data available for R. bonasus, this study aimed to describe the genetic variability and population structure of specimens sampled from three Brazilian coast ecoregions (Amazon ecoregion, Pará; Northeastern ecoregion, Pernambuco and Southeastern ecoregion, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Santa Catarina), through five polymorphic microsatellite markers. Here testing the panmixia hypothesis for Brazilian ecoregions and test natal philopathy. A total of 69 analyzed specimens revealed individual and significant genetic differentiation between the sampled locations. Φ ST (0.12), PCA, DAPC and Bayesian analyses of the genetic population structure revealed at least two distinct genetic R. bonasus groupings. IBD tests were significant, indicating a correlation between genetic and geographical distance among populations, which can be explained by reproductive philopatric behavior. Philopatric behavior associated with R. bonasus mobility may influence the differentiation values observed for all loci in the investigated samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno C. Souza
- Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho, Brazil
| | - Vanessa P. Cruz
- Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Fausto Foresti
- Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho, Brazil
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Sherman CS, Heupel MR, Johnson M, Kaimuddin M, Qamar LMS, Chin A, Simpfendorfer CA. Repeatability of baited remote underwater video station (BRUVS) results within and between seasons. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0244154. [PMID: 33332427 PMCID: PMC7745976 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Baited remote underwater video stations (BRUVS) are increasingly being used to evaluate and monitor reef communities. Many BRUVS studies compare multiple sites sampled at single time points that may differ from the sampling time of another site. As BRUVS use grows in its application to provide data relevant to sustainable management, marine protected area success, and overall reef health, understanding repeatability of sampling results is vital. We examined the repeatability of BRUVS results for the elasmobranch community both within and between seasons and years, and explored environmental factors affecting abundances at two sites in Indonesia. On 956 BRUVS, 1139 elasmobranchs (69% rays, 31% sharks) were observed. We found consistent results in species composition and abundances within a season and across years. However, elasmobranch abundances were significantly higher in the wet season. The elasmobranch community was significantly different between the two sites sampled, one site being more coastal and easily accessed by fishermen. Our results demonstrate that while BRUVS are a reliable and repeatable method for surveying elasmobranchs, care must be taken in the timing of sampling between different regions to ensure that any differences observed are due to inherent differences amongst sampling areas as opposed to seasonal dissimilarities.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Samantha Sherman
- Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture; College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
- AIMS@JCU, DB17-063, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
- Department of Biological Sciences, Earth to Oceans Research Group, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Michelle R. Heupel
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Cape Cleveland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mohini Johnson
- Operation Wallacea, Spilsby, Lincolnshire, United Kingdom
| | | | - L. M. Sjamsul Qamar
- Fisheries Department, Universitas Dayanu Ikhsanuddin, Bau Bau, Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia
| | - Andrew Chin
- Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture; College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Cape Cleveland, Queensland, Australia
| | - Colin A. Simpfendorfer
- Centre for Sustainable Tropical Fisheries and Aquaculture; College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
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Flowers KI, Henderson AC, Lupton JL, Chapman DD. Site affinity of whitespotted eagle rays Aetobatus narinari assessed using photographic identification. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2017; 91:1337-1349. [PMID: 28994102 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Photographic identification was used to track the movements of the whitespotted eagle ray Aetobatus narinari around South Caicos, Turks and Caicos Islands. A total of 165 individuals were identified, aided by the computer program I3 S Spot. The sex ratio across all study sites in 2015 was not significantly different from 1:1 (χ2 = 2·8, P > 0·05). 33·9% of all individual rays were resighted at least once and the maximum number of days between the first and last sighting was 1640 (median 165, interquartile range, IQR = 698). Sightings of individuals occurred at locations differing from the original sighting location 24·6% of the time (0·7-20 km away). The entire population around South Caicos has yet to be sampled and these rays exhibited site affinity during the study period; they are either resident to South Caicos or are using the area for parts of the year before making movements elsewhere and then returning. Given these results, A. narinari is suited to local-scale management and conservation efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- K I Flowers
- The School for Field Studies, Center for Marine Resource Studies, South Caicos, Turks and Caicos Islands
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, U.S.A
| | - A C Henderson
- The School for Field Studies, Center for Marine Resource Studies, South Caicos, Turks and Caicos Islands
| | - J L Lupton
- The School for Field Studies, Center for Marine Resource Studies, South Caicos, Turks and Caicos Islands
| | - D D Chapman
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, U.S.A
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Tiger sharks can connect equatorial habitats and fisheries across the Atlantic Ocean basin. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0184763. [PMID: 28926627 PMCID: PMC5604974 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing our knowledge about the spatial ecology of apex predators and their interactions with diverse habitats and fisheries is necessary for understanding the trophic mechanisms that underlie several aspects of marine ecosystem dynamics and for guiding informed management policies. A preliminary assessment of tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) population structure off the oceanic insular system of Fernando de Noronha (FEN) and the large-scale movements performed by this species in the equatorial Atlantic Ocean was conducted using longline and handline fishing gear and satellite telemetry. A total of 25 sharks measuring 175–372 cm in total length (TL) were sampled. Most sharks were likely immature females ranging between 200 and 260 cm TL, with few individuals < 200 cm TL being caught. This contrasts greatly with the tiger shark size-distribution previously reported for coastal waters off the Brazilian mainland, where most individuals measured < 200 cm TL. Also, the movements of 8 individuals measuring 202–310 cm TL were assessed with satellite transmitters for a combined total of 757 days (mean = 94.6 days∙shark-1; SD = 65.6). These sharks exhibited a considerable variability in their horizontal movements, with three sharks showing a mostly resident behavior around FEN during the extent of the respective tracks, two sharks traveling west to the South American continent, and two sharks moving mostly along the middle of the oceanic basin, one of which ending up in the northern hemisphere. Moreover, one shark traveled east to the African continent, where it was eventually caught by fishers from Ivory Coast in less than 474 days at liberty. The present results suggest that young tiger sharks measuring < 200 cm TL make little use of insular oceanic habitats from the western South Atlantic Ocean, which agrees with a previously-hypothesized ontogenetic habitat shift from coastal to oceanic habitats experienced by juveniles of this species in this region. In addition, this study adds evidence that tiger sharks are able to connect marine trophic webs from the neritic provinces of the eastern and western margins of the Atlantic Ocean across the equatorial basin and that they may experience mortality induced by remote fisheries. All this information is extremely relevant for understanding the energetic balance of marine ecosystems as much as the exposure of this species to fishing pressure in this yet poorly-known region.
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Aguilera O, Luz Z, Carrillo-Briceño JD, Kocsis L, Vennemann TW, de Toledo PM, Nogueira A, Amorim KB, Moraes-Santos H, Polck MR, Ruivo MDL, Linhares AP, Monteiro-Neto C. Neogene sharks and rays from the Brazilian 'Blue Amazon'. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0182740. [PMID: 28832664 PMCID: PMC5568136 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0182740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The lower Miocene Pirabas Formation in the North of Brazil was deposited under influence of the proto-Amazon River and is characterized by large changes in the ecological niches from the early Miocene onwards. To evaluate these ecological changes, the elasmobranch fauna of the fully marine, carbonate-rich beds was investigated. A diverse fauna with 24 taxa of sharks and rays was identified with the dominant groups being carcharhiniforms and myliobatiforms. This faunal composition is similar to other early Miocene assemblages from the proto-Carribbean bioprovince. However, the Pirabas Formation has unique features compared to the other localities; being the only Neogene fossil fish assemblage described from the Atlantic coast of Tropical Americas. Phosphate oxygen isotope composition of elasmobranch teeth served as proxies for paleotemperatures and paleoecology. The data are compatible with a predominantly tropical marine setting with recognized inshore and offshore habitats with some probable depth preferences (e.g., Aetomylaeus groups). Paleohabitat of taxa particularly found in the Neogene of the Americas (†Carcharhinus ackermannii, †Aetomylaeus cubensis) are estimated to have been principally coastal and shallow waters. Larger variation among the few analyzed modern selachians reflects a larger range for the isotopic composition of recent seawater compared to the early Miocene. This probably links to an increased influence of the Amazon River in the coastal regions during the Holocene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orangel Aguilera
- Departamento de Biologia Marinha, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
- Instituto de Geociências, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém, Pará, Brasil
| | - Zoneibe Luz
- Instituto de Geociências, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém, Pará, Brasil
- * E-mail:
| | | | - László Kocsis
- Faculty of Science, Geology Group, University of Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku, Gadong, Brunei Darussalam
| | - Torsten W. Vennemann
- Institut des Dynamiques de la Surface Terrestre, Université de Lausanne, Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
| | - Peter Mann de Toledo
- Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Afonso Nogueira
- Instituto de Geociências, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém, Pará, Brasil
| | - Kamilla Borges Amorim
- Instituto de Astronomia, Geofísica e Ciências Atmosféricas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Heloísa Moraes-Santos
- Coordenação de Ciências da Terra e Ecologia, Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belém, Pará, Brasil
| | - Marcia Reis Polck
- Departamento Nacional de Produção Mineral, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
| | - Maria de Lourdes Ruivo
- Coordenação de Ciências da Terra e Ecologia, Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belém, Pará, Brasil
| | - Ana Paula Linhares
- Coordenação de Ciências da Terra e Ecologia, Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belém, Pará, Brasil
| | - Cassiano Monteiro-Neto
- Departamento de Biologia Marinha, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
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González-Ramos MS, Santos-Moreno A, Rosas-Alquicira EF, Fuentes-Mascorro G. Validation of photo-identification as a mark-recapture method in the spotted eagle ray Aetobatus narinari. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2017; 90:1021-1030. [PMID: 27885667 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The spotted eagle ray Aetobatus narinari is characterized by pigmentation patterns that are retained for up to 3·5 years. These pigmentations can be used to identify individuals through photo-identification. Only one study has validated this technique, but no study has estimated the percentage of correct identification of the rays using this technique. In order to carry out demographic research, a reliable photographic identification technique is needed. To achieve this validation for A. narinari, a double-mark system was established over 11 months and photographs of the dorsal surface of 191 rays were taken. Three body parts with distinctive natural patterns were analysed (dorsal surface of the cephalic region, dorsal surface of the pectoral fins and dorsal surface of the pelvic fins) in order to determine the body part that could be used to give the highest percentage of correct identification. The dorsal surface of the pectoral fins of A. narinari provides the most accurate photo-identification to distinguish individuals (88·2%).
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Affiliation(s)
- M S González-Ramos
- Laboratorio de Ecología Animal. Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigación para el Desarrollo Integral Regional, Unidad Oaxaca, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Hornos 1003, Colonia La Noche Buena, Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, Oaxaca, Código Postal 71230, México
| | - A Santos-Moreno
- Laboratorio de Ecología Animal. Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigación para el Desarrollo Integral Regional, Unidad Oaxaca, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Hornos 1003, Colonia La Noche Buena, Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, Oaxaca, Código Postal 71230, México
| | - E F Rosas-Alquicira
- Universidad del Mar, Campus Puerto Ángel, Instituto de Recursos, Ciudad Universitaria sin Número, San Pedro Pochutla, Oaxaca, Código Postal 70902, México
| | - G Fuentes-Mascorro
- Universidad Autónoma Benito Juárez de Oaxaca, Laboratorio de Investigación en Reproducción Animal, Avenida Universidad sin Número Colonia 5 Señores, Oaxaca de Juárez, Oaxaca, Código Postal 68120, México
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Harmon TS, Kamerman TY, Corwin AL, Sellas AB. Consecutive parthenogenetic births in a spotted eagle ray Aetobatus narinari. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2016; 88:741-745. [PMID: 26563982 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.12819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Genetic evidence is given to support consecutive parthenogenesis in a spotted eagle ray Aetobatus narinari using nuclear microsatellite genotyping. To date, only a handful of births involving the parthenogenesis process in chondrichthyans have been verified using microsatellite markers and even fewer verified as recurring births. This appears to be the first documented case of this process occurring in a myliobatid species.
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Affiliation(s)
- T S Harmon
- Disney's Animals, Science, and Environment, Disney's Animal Kingdom, EPCOT's The Seas with Nemo and Friends, Walt Disney's Parks and Resorts, Bay Lake, FL, 32830, U.S.A
| | - T Y Kamerman
- Disney's Animals, Science, and Environment, Disney's Animal Kingdom, EPCOT's The Seas with Nemo and Friends, Walt Disney's Parks and Resorts, Bay Lake, FL, 32830, U.S.A
| | - A L Corwin
- Disney's Animals, Science, and Environment, Disney's Animal Kingdom, EPCOT's The Seas with Nemo and Friends, Walt Disney's Parks and Resorts, Bay Lake, FL, 32830, U.S.A
| | - A B Sellas
- California Academy of Sciences, Center for Comparative Genomics, 55 Music Concourse Drive, San Francisco, CA, 94118, U.S.A
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