Involvement of connexin43 hemichannel in ATP release after γ-irradiation

Abscopal Effects, Clastogenic Effects and Bystander Effects: 70 Years of Non-Targeted Effects of Radiation

In vitro and in vivo observations accumulated over several decades have firmly shown that the biological effects of ionizing radiation can spread from irradiated cells/tissues to non-targeted cells/tissues. Redox-modulated intercellular communication mechanisms that include a role for secreted factors and gap junctions, can mediate these non-targeted effects. Clearly, the expression of such effects and their transmission to progeny cells has implications for issues related to radiation protection. Their elucidation is also relevant towards enhancing the efficacy of cancer radiotherapy and reducing its impact on the development of normal tissue toxicities. In addition, the study of non-targeted effects is pertinent to our basic understanding of intercellular communications under conditions of oxidative stress. This review will trace the history of non-targeted effects of radiation starting with early reports of abscopal effects which described radiation induced effects in tissues distant from the site of radiation exposure. A related effect involved the production of clastogenic factors in plasma following irradiation which can induce chromosome damage in unirradiated cells. Despite these early reports suggesting non-targeted effects of radiation, the classical paradigm that a direct deposition of energy in the nucleus was required still dominated. This paradigm was challenged by papers describing radiation induced bystander effects. This review will cover mechanisms of radiation-induced bystander effects and the potential impacts on radiation protection and radiation therapy.

Connexin hemichannels and pannexin channels in toxicity: Recent advances and mechanistic insights

Connexin hemichannels and pannexin channels are two types of transmembrane channels that allow autocrine/paracrine signalling through the exchange of ions and molecules between the intra- and extracellular compartments. However, owing to the poor selectivity of permeable ions and metabolites, the massive opening of these plasma membrane channels can lead to an excessive influx of toxic substances and an outflux of essential metabolites, such as adenosine triphosphate, glutathione, glutamate and ions, resulting in unbalanced cell homeostasis and impaired cell function. It is becoming increasingly clear that these channels can be activated in response to external stimuli and are involved in toxicity, yet their concrete mechanistic roles in the toxic effects induced by stress and various environmental changes remain poorly defined. This review provides an updated understanding of connexin hemichannels and pannexin channels in response to multiple extrinsic stressors and how these activated channels and their permeable messengers participate in toxicological pathways and processes, including inflammation, oxidative damage, intracellular calcium imbalance, bystander DNA damage and excitotoxicity.

Robo4 inhibits gamma radiation-induced permeability of a murine microvascular endothelial cell by regulating the junctions

BACKGROUND

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation involves irradiation preconditioning which causes bone marrow endothelial cell dysfunction. While much emphasis is on the reconstitution of hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow microenvironment, endothelial cell preservation is indispensable to overcome the preconditioning damages. This study aims to ascertain the role of Roundabout 4 (Robo4) in regulating irradiation-induced damage to the endothelium.

METHODS

Microvascular endothelial cells were treated with γ-radiation to establish an endothelial cell injury model. Robo4 expression in the endothelial cells was manipulated employing lentiviral-mediated RNAi and gene overexpression technology before irradiation treatment. The permeability of endothelial cells was measured using qPCR, immunocytochemistry, and immunoblotting to analyze the effect on the expression and distribution of junctional molecules, adherens junctions, tight junctions, and gap junctions. Using Transwell endothelial monolayer staining, FITC-Dextran permeability, and gap junction-mediated intercellular communication (GJIC) assays, we determined the changes in endothelial functions after Robo4 gene manipulation and irradiation. Moreover, we measured the proportion of CD31 expression in endothelial cells by flow cytometry. We analyzed variations between two or multiple groups using Student's t-tests and ANOVA.

RESULTS

Ionizing radiation upregulates Robo4 expression but disrupts endothelial junctional molecules. Robo4 deletion causes further degradation of endothelial junctions hence increasing the permeability of the endothelial cell monolayer. Robo4 knockdown in microvascular endothelial cells increases the degradation and delocalization of ZO-1, PECAM-1, occludin, and claudin-5 molecules after irradiation. Conversely, connexin 43 expression increases after silencing Robo4 in endothelial cells to induce permeability but are readily destroyed when exposed to 10 Gy of gamma radiation. Also, Robo4 knockdown enhances Y731-VE-cadherin phosphorylation leading to the depletion and destabilization of VE-cadherin at the endothelial junctions following irradiation. However, Robo4 overexpression mitigates irradiation-induced degradation of tight junctional proteins and stabilizes claudin-5 and ZO-1 distribution. Finally, the enhanced expression of Robo4 ameliorates the irradiation-induced depletion of VE-cadherin and connexin 43, improves the integrity of microvascular endothelial cell junctions, and decreases permeability.

CONCLUSION

This study reveals that Robo4 maintains microvascular integrity after radiation preconditioning treatment by regulating endothelial permeability and protecting endothelial functions. Our results also provided a potential mechanism to repair the bone marrow vascular niche after irradiation by modulating Robo4 expression.

Out-of-field effects: lessons learned from partial body exposure

Partial body exposure and inhomogeneous dose delivery are features of the majority of medical and occupational exposure situations. However, mounting evidence indicates that the effects of partial body exposure are not limited to the irradiated area but also have systemic effects that are propagated outside the irradiated field. It was the aim of the "Partial body exposure" session within the MELODI workshop 2020 to discuss recent developments and insights into this field by covering clinical, epidemiological, dosimetric as well as mechanistic aspects. Especially the impact of out-of-field effects on dysfunctions of immune cells, cardiovascular diseases and effects on the brain were debated. The presentations at the workshop acknowledged the relevance of out-of-field effects as components of the cellular and organismal radiation response. Furthermore, their importance for the understanding of radiation-induced pathologies, for the discovery of early disease biomarkers and for the identification of high-risk organs after inhomogeneous exposure was emphasized. With the rapid advancement of clinical treatment modalities, including new dose rates and distributions a better understanding of individual health risk is urgently needed. To achieve this, a deeper mechanistic understanding of out-of-field effects in close connection to improved modelling was suggested as priorities for future research. This will support the amelioration of risk models and the personalization of risk assessments for cancer and non-cancer effects after partial body irradiation.

Cardiac Remodelling Following Cancer Therapy: A Review

Cardiac remodelling is characterized by abnormal changes in the function and morphological properties such as diameter, mass, normal diameter of cavities, heart shape, fibrosis, thickening of vessels and heart layers, cardiomyopathy, infiltration of inflammatory cells, and some others. These damages are associated with damage to systolic and diastolic abnormalities, damage to ventricular function, and vascular remodelling, which may lead to heart failure and death. Exposure of the heart to radiation or anti-cancer drugs including chemotherapy drugs such as doxorubicin, receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors (RTKIs) such as imatinib, and immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) can induce several abnormal changes in the heart structure and function through the induction of inflammation and fibrosis, vascular remodelling, hypertrophy, and some others. This review aims to explain the basic mechanisms behind cardiac remodelling following cancer therapy by different anti-cancer modalities.

The intercellular communications mediating radiation-induced bystander effects and their relevance to environmental, occupational, and therapeutic exposures

PURPOSE

The assumption that traversal of the cell nucleus by ionizing radiation is a prerequisite to induce genetic damage, or other important biological responses, has been challenged by studies showing that oxidative alterations extend beyond the irradiated cells and occur also in neighboring bystander cells. Cells and tissues outside the radiation field experience significant biochemical and phenotypic changes that are often similar to those observed in the irradiated cells and tissues. With relevance to the assessment of long-term health risks of occupational, environmental and clinical exposures, measurable genetic, epigenetic, and metabolic changes have been also detected in the progeny of bystander cells. How the oxidative damage spreads from the irradiated cells to their neighboring bystander cells has been under intense investigation. Following a brief summary of the trends in radiobiology leading to this paradigm shift in the field, we review key findings of bystander effects induced by low and high doses of various types of radiation that differ in their biophysical characteristics. While notable mechanistic insights continue to emerge, here the focus is on the many means of intercellular communication that mediate these effects, namely junctional channels, secreted molecules and extracellular vesicles, and immune pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

The insights gained by studying radiation bystander effects are leading to a basic understanding of the intercellular communications that occur under mild and severe oxidative stress in both normal and cancerous tissues. Understanding the mechanisms underlying these communications will likely contribute to reducing the uncertainty of predicting adverse health effects following exposure to low dose/low fluence ionizing radiation, guide novel interventions that mitigate adverse out-of-field effects, and contribute to better outcomes of radiotherapeutic treatments of cancer. In this review, we highlight novel routes of intercellular communication for investigation, and raise the rationale for reconsidering classification of bystander responses, abscopal effects, and expression of genomic instability as non-targeted effects of radiation.

Recent advances in radiosensitivity determinants in melanoma

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Radiotherapy has been proven to be useful but insufficient in melanoma management due to the intrinsic radioresistance of melanoma cells. Elucidation of the molecular mechanisms and pathways related to resistance/sensitivity to radiotherapy in melanoma is of paramount importance. In this review, we will summarize and discuss the recent 'discoveries' and advances in radiosensitivity determinants in melanoma.

RECENT FINDINGS

The different levels of radiosensitivity among the various melanoma tumors could be attributed to the DNA damage signaling and repair proteins, tumor microenvironment, hypoxia, cell metabolism, glutathione and redox balance, protein kinase signaling pathways as well as pigmentation and melanin content.

SUMMARY

It is therapeutically important to elucidate the factors involved in radiation resistance/sensitivity of melanoma. More importantly, improving radiosensitivity may 'widen the clinical utility' in melanoma of this important therapeutic modality.

Connexin channels modulation in pathophysiology and treatment of immune and inflammatory disorders

Connexin-mediated intercellular communication mechanisms include bidirectional cell-to-cell coupling by gap junctions and release/influx of molecules by hemichannels. These intercellular communications have relevant roles in numerous immune system activities. Here, we review the current knowledge about the function of connexin channels, mainly those formed by connexin-43, on immunity and inflammation. Focusing on those evidence that support the design and development of therapeutic tools to modulate connexin expression and/or channel activities with treatment potential for infections, wounds, cancer, and other inflammatory conditions.

Connexin Hemichannel Activation by S-Nitrosoglutathione Synergizes Strongly with Photodynamic Therapy Potentiating Anti-Tumor Bystander Killing

Simple Summary

Bystander effects depend on direct cell-cell communication and/or paracrine signaling mediated by the release of soluble factors into the extracellular environment and may greatly influence therapy outcome. Although the limited data available suggest a role for intercellular gap junction channels, far less is known about the role of connexin hemichannels. Here, we investigated bystander effects induced by photodynamic therapy in syngeneic murine melanoma models in vivo. We determined that (i) photoactivation of a photosensitizer triggered calcium-dependent cell death pathways in both irradiated and bystander tumor cells; (ii) hemichannel activity and adenosine triphosphate release were key factors for the induction of bystander cell death; and (iii) bystander cell killing and antitumor response elicited by photodynamic therapy were greatly enhanced by combination treatment with S-nitrosoglutathione, which promoted hemichannel opening in these experimental conditions. Therefore, these findings in a preclinical model have important translational potential.

Abstract

In this study, we used B16-F10 cells grown in the dorsal skinfold chamber (DSC) preparation that allowed us to gain optical access to the processes triggered by photodynamic therapy (PDT). Partial irradiation of a photosensitized melanoma triggered cell death in non-irradiated tumor cells. Multiphoton intravital microscopy with genetically encoded fluorescence indicators revealed that bystander cell death was mediated by paracrine signaling due to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) release from connexin (Cx) hemichannels (HCs). Intercellular calcium (Ca²⁺) waves propagated from irradiated to bystander cells promoting intracellular Ca²⁺ transfer from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to mitochondria and rapid activation of apoptotic pathways. Combination treatment with S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO), an endogenous nitric oxide (NO) donor that biases HCs towards the open state, greatly potentiated anti-tumor bystander killing via enhanced Ca²⁺ signaling, leading to a significant reduction of post-irradiation tumor mass. Our results demonstrate that HCs can be exploited to dramatically increase cytotoxic bystander effects and reveal a previously unappreciated role for HCs in tumor eradication promoted by PDT.

Connexins in melanoma: Potential role of Cx46 in its aggressiveness

Melanoma is the most aggressive skin cancer, and in metastatic advanced states, it is completely refractory to chemotherapy. Therefore, it is relevant to understand the molecular bases that rule their aggressiveness. Connexins (Cxs) are proteins that under normal physiological conditions participate in intercellular communication, via the exchange of signaling molecules between the cytoplasm and extracellular milieu and the exchange of ions/second messengers between the cytoplasm of contacting cells. These proteins have shown important roles in cancer progression, chemo- and radiotherapy resistance, and metastasis. Accordingly, Cx26 and Cx43 seem to play important roles in melanoma progression and metastasis. On the other hand, Cx46 is typically expressed in the eye lens, where it seems to be associated with oxidative stress protection in fiber lens cells. However, in the last decade, Cx46 expression has been associated with breast and brain cancers, due to its role in potentiation of both extracellular vesicle release and cancer stem cell-like properties. In this review, we analyzed a potential role of Cx46 as a new biomarker and therapeutic target in melanoma.

Scarred Lung. An Update on Radiation-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis

Radiation-induced pulmonary fibrosis is a common severe long-time complication of radiation therapy for tumors of the thorax. Current therapeutic options used in the clinic include only supportive managements strategies, such as anti-inflammatory treatment using steroids, their efficacy, however, is far from being satisfactory. Recent studies have demonstrated that the development of lung fibrosis is a dynamic and complex process, involving the release of reactive oxygen species, activation of Toll-like receptors, recruitment of inflammatory cells, excessive production of nitric oxide and production of collagen by activated myofibroblasts. In this review we summarized the current state of knowledge on the pathophysiological processes leading to the development of lung fibrosis and we also discussed the possible treatment options.

P2Y receptors for extracellular nucleotides: Contributions to cancer progression and therapeutic implications

Purinergic receptors for extracellular nucleotides and nucleosides contribute to a vast array of cellular and tissue functions, including cell proliferation, intracellular and transmembrane ion flux, immunomodulation and thrombosis. In mammals, the purinergic receptor system is composed of G protein-coupled P1 receptors A₁, A_2A, A_2B and A₃ for extracellular adenosine, P2X1-7 receptors that are ATP-gated ion channels and G protein-coupled P2Y_{1,2,4,6,11,12,13 and 14} receptors for extracellular ATP, ADP, UTP, UDP and/or UDP-glucose. Recent studies have implicated specific P2Y receptor subtypes in numerous oncogenic processes, including cancer tumorigenesis, metastasis and chemotherapeutic drug resistance, where G protein-mediated signaling cascades modulate intracellular ion concentrations and activate downstream protein kinases, Src family kinases as well as numerous mitogen-activated protein kinases. We are honored to contribute to this special issue dedicated to the founder of the field of purinergic signaling, Dr. Geoffrey Burnstock, by reviewing the diverse roles of P2Y receptors in the initiation, progression and metastasis of specific cancers with an emphasis on pharmacological and genetic strategies employed to delineate cell-specific and P2Y receptor subtype-specific responses that have been investigated using in vitro and in vivo cancer models. We further highlight bioinformatic and empirical evidence on P2Y receptor expression in human clinical specimens and cover clinical perspectives where P2Y receptor-targeting interventions may have therapeutic relevance to cancer treatment.

The role of connexin proteins and their channels in radiation-induced atherosclerosis

Radiotherapy is an effective treatment for breast cancer and other thoracic tumors. However, while high-energy radiotherapy treatment successfully kills cancer cells, radiation exposure of the heart and large arteries cannot always be avoided, resulting in secondary cardiovascular disease in cancer survivors. Radiation-induced changes in the cardiac vasculature may thereby lead to coronary artery atherosclerosis, which is a major cardiovascular complication nowadays in thoracic radiotherapy-treated patients. The underlying biological and molecular mechanisms of radiation-induced atherosclerosis are complex and still not fully understood, resulting in potentially improper radiation protection. Ionizing radiation (IR) exposure may damage the vascular endothelium by inducing DNA damage, oxidative stress, premature cellular senescence, cell death and inflammation, which act to promote the atherosclerotic process. Intercellular communication mediated by connexin (Cx)-based gap junctions and hemichannels may modulate IR-induced responses and thereby the atherosclerotic process. However, the role of endothelial Cxs and their channels in atherosclerotic development after IR exposure is still poorly defined. A better understanding of the underlying biological pathways involved in secondary cardiovascular toxicity after radiotherapy would facilitate the development of effective strategies that prevent or mitigate these adverse effects. Here, we review the possible roles of intercellular Cx driven signaling and communication in radiation-induced atherosclerosis.

Radiation-Induced Salivary Gland Dysfunction: Mechanisms, Therapeutics and Future Directions

Salivary glands sustain collateral damage following radiotherapy (RT) to treat cancers of the head and neck, leading to complications, including mucositis, xerostomia and hyposalivation. Despite salivary gland-sparing techniques and modified dosing strategies, long-term hypofunction remains a significant problem. Current therapeutic interventions provide temporary symptom relief, but do not address irreversible glandular damage. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of mechanisms involved in RT-induced hyposalivation and provide a framework for future mechanistic studies. One glaring gap in published studies investigating RT-induced mechanisms of salivary gland dysfunction concerns the effect of irradiation on adjacent non-irradiated tissue via paracrine, autocrine and direct cell-cell interactions, coined the bystander effect in other models of RT-induced damage. We hypothesize that purinergic receptor signaling involving P2 nucleotide receptors may play a key role in mediating the bystander effect. We also discuss promising new therapeutic approaches to prevent salivary gland damage due to RT.

The Role of Hypoxia and SRC Tyrosine Kinase in Glioblastoma Invasiveness and Radioresistance

Advances in functional imaging are supporting neurosurgery and radiotherapy for glioblastoma, which still remains the most aggressive brain tumor with poor prognosis. The typical infiltration pattern of glioblastoma, which impedes a complete surgical resection, is coupled with a high rate of invasiveness and radioresistance, thus further limiting efficient therapy, leading to inevitable and fatal recurrences. Hypoxia is of crucial importance in gliomagenesis and, besides reducing radiotherapy efficacy, also induces cellular and molecular mediators that foster proliferation and invasion. In this review, we aimed at analyzing the biological mechanism of glioblastoma invasiveness and radioresistance in hypoxic niches of glioblastoma. We also discussed the link between hypoxia and radiation-induced radioresistance with activation of SRC proto-oncogene non-receptor tyrosine kinase, prospecting potential strategies to overcome the current limitation in glioblastoma treatment.

Damage-associated molecular patterns in tumor radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is one of the most common modalities for the treatment of cancer. One of the most promising effects of radiotherapy is immunologic cell death and the release of danger alarms, which are known as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). DAMPs are able to trigger cancer cells and other cells within tumor microenvironment (TME), either for suppression or promotion of tumor growth. Heat shock proteins (HSPs) including HSP70 and HSP90, high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and its metabolites such as adenosine are the most common danger alarms that are released after radiotherapy-induced immunologic cell death. Some DAMPs including adenosine is able to interact with both cancer cells as well as other cells in TME to promote tumor growth and resistance to radiotherapy. However, others are able to trigger anti-tumor immunity or both tumor suppressive and immunosuppressive mechanisms depending on affected cells. In this review, we explain the mechanisms behind the release of radiation-induced DAMPs, and its consequences on cells within tumor. Targeting of these mechanisms may be in favor of tumor control in combination with radiotherapy and radioimmunotherapy.

Cx43 channels and signaling via IP3/Ca2+, ATP, and ROS/NO propagate radiation-induced DNA damage to non-irradiated brain microvascular endothelial cells

Radiotherapeutic treatment consists of targeted application of radiation beams to a tumor but exposure of surrounding healthy tissue is inevitable. In the brain, ionizing radiation induces breakdown of the blood-brain barrier by effects on brain microvascular endothelial cells. Damage from directly irradiated cells can be transferred to surrounding non-exposed bystander cells, known as the radiation-induced bystander effect. We investigated involvement of connexin channels and paracrine signaling in radiation-induced bystander DNA damage in brain microvascular endothelial cells exposed to focused X-rays. Irradiation caused DNA damage in the directly exposed area, which propagated over several millimeters in the bystander area. DNA damage was significantly reduced by the connexin channel-targeting peptide Gap26 and the Cx43 hemichannel blocker TAT-Gap19. ATP release, dye uptake, and patch clamp experiments showed that hemichannels opened within 5 min post irradiation in both irradiated and bystander areas. Bystander signaling involved cellular Ca²⁺ dynamics and IP₃, ATP, ROS, and NO signaling, with Ca²⁺, IP₃, and ROS as crucial propagators of DNA damage. We conclude that bystander effects are communicated by a concerted cascade involving connexin channels, and IP₃/Ca²⁺, ATP, ROS, and NO as major contributors of regenerative signal expansion.

P2 Receptors as Therapeutic Targets in the Salivary Gland: From Physiology to Dysfunction

Although often overlooked in our daily lives, saliva performs a host of necessary physiological functions, including lubricating and protecting the oral cavity, facilitating taste sensation and digestion and maintaining tooth enamel. Therefore, salivary gland dysfunction and hyposalivation, often resulting from pathogenesis of the autoimmune disease Sjögren's syndrome or from radiotherapy of the head and neck region during cancer treatment, severely reduce the quality of life of afflicted patients and can lead to dental caries, periodontitis, digestive disorders, loss of taste and difficulty speaking. Since their initial discovery in the 1970s, P2 purinergic receptors for extracellular nucleotides, including ATP-gated ion channel P2X and G protein-coupled P2Y receptors, have been shown to mediate physiological processes in numerous tissues, including the salivary glands where P2 receptors represent a link between canonical and non-canonical saliva secretion. Additionally, extracellular nucleotides released during periods of cellular stress and inflammation act as a tissue alarmin to coordinate immunological and tissue repair responses through P2 receptor activation. Accordingly, P2 receptors have gained widespread clinical interest with agonists and antagonists either currently undergoing clinical trials or already approved for human use. Here, we review the contributions of P2 receptors to salivary gland function and describe their role in salivary gland dysfunction. We further consider their potential as therapeutic targets to promote physiological saliva flow, prevent salivary gland inflammation and enhance tissue regeneration.

Connexin43 Hemichannel Targeting With TAT-Gap19 Alleviates Radiation-Induced Endothelial Cell Damage

BACKGROUND

Emerging evidence indicates an excess risk of late occurring cardiovascular diseases, especially atherosclerosis, after thoracic cancer radiotherapy. Ionizing radiation (IR) induces cellular effects which may induce endothelial cell dysfunction, an early marker for atherosclerosis. In addition, intercellular communication through channels composed of transmembrane connexin proteins (Cxs), i.e. Gap junctions (direct cell-cell coupling) and hemichannels (paracrine release/uptake pathway) can modulate radiation-induced responses and therefore the atherosclerotic process. However, the role of endothelial hemichannel in IR-induced atherosclerosis has never been described before.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Telomerase-immortalized human Coronary Artery/Microvascular Endothelial cells (TICAE/TIME) were exposed to X-rays (0.1 and 5 Gy). Production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), DNA damage, cell death, inflammatory responses, and senescence were assessed with or without applying a Cx43 hemichannel blocker (TAT-Gap19).

RESULTS

We report here that IR induces an increase in oxidative stress, cell death, inflammatory responses (IL-8, IL-1β, VCAM-1, MCP-1, and Endothelin-1) and premature cellular senescence in TICAE and TIME cells. These effects are significantly reduced in the presence of the Cx43 hemichannel-targeting peptide TAT-Gap19.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that endothelial Cx43 hemichannels contribute to various IR-induced processes, such as ROS, cell death, inflammation, and senescence, resulting in an increase in endothelial cell damage, which could be protected by blocking these hemichannels. Thus, targeting Cx43 hemichannels may potentially exert radioprotective effects.

Involvement of A2B Receptor in DNA Damage Response and Radiosensitizing Effect of A2B Receptor Antagonists on Mouse B16 Melanoma

It is therapeutically important to elucidate the factors involved in the radiation resistance of tumors. We previously showed that ATP is released from mouse melanoma B16 cells in response to γ-irradiation, but the role of adenosine, a metabolite of ATP, is still unclear. Here, we show that the adenosine A2B receptor is involved in DNA damage repair and radioresistance in mouse melanoma B16 cells. The DNA damage response after γ-irradiation was attenuated by pretreatment with A2B receptor antagonists, such as PSB603, while it was enhanced by pretreatment with A2B receptor agonists, such as BAY60-6583. γ-Irradiation decreased the cell survival rate, and pretreatment with PSB603 further reduced the survival rate. On the other hand, pretreatment with BAY60-6583 increased the cell survival rate after irradiation. The DNA damage response and the cell survival rate after γ-irradiation were both decreased in A2B-knockdown cells. In vivo experiments in mice confirmed that tumor growth was suppressed and delayed in the irradiated group pretreated with PSB603, compared with the irradiation-alone group. Our results indicate that adenosine A2B receptor contributes to radioresistance, and could be a new target for the development of agents to increase the efficacy of radiotherapy.

Single and fractionated ionizing radiation induce alterations in endothelial connexin expression and channel function

Radiotherapy is an effective treatment for most tumor types. However, emerging evidence indicates an increased risk for atherosclerosis after ionizing radiation exposure, initiated by endothelial cell dysfunction. Interestingly, endothelial cells express connexin (Cx) proteins that are reported to exert proatherogenic as well as atheroprotective effects. Furthermore, Cxs form channels, gap junctions and hemichannels, that are involved in bystander signaling that leads to indirect radiation effects in non-exposed cells. We here aimed to investigate the consequences of endothelial cell irradiation on Cx expression and channel function. Telomerase immortalized human Coronary Artery/Microvascular Endothelial cells were exposed to single and fractionated X-rays. Several biological endpoints were investigated at different time points after exposure: Cx gene and protein expression, gap junctional dye coupling and hemichannel function. We demonstrate that single and fractionated irradiation induce upregulation of proatherogenic Cx43 and downregulation of atheroprotective Cx40 gene and protein levels in a dose-dependent manner. Single and fractionated irradiation furthermore increased gap junctional communication and induced hemichannel opening. Our findings indicate alterations in Cx expression that are typically observed in endothelial cells covering atherosclerotic plaques. The observed radiation-induced increase in Cx channel function may promote bystander signaling thereby exacerbating endothelial cell damage and atherogenesis.

An autocrine ATP release mechanism regulates basal ciliary activity in airway epithelium

KEY POINTS

Extracellular ATP, in association with [Ca²⁺ ]_i regulation, is required to maintain basal ciliary beat frequency. Increasing extracellular ATP levels increases ciliary beating in airway epithelial cells, maintaining a sustained response by inducing the release of additional ATP. Extracellular ATP levels in the millimolar range, previously associated with pathophysiological conditions of the airway epithelium, produce a transient arrest of ciliary activity. The regulation of ciliary beat frequency is dependent on ATP release by hemichannels (connexin/pannexin) and P2X receptor activation, the blockage of which may even stop ciliary movement. The force exerted by cilia, measured by atomic force microscopy, is reduced following extracellular ATP hydrolysis. This result complements the current understanding of the ciliary beating regulatory mechanism, with special relevance to inflammatory diseases of the airway epithelium that affect mucociliary clearance.

ABSTRACT

Extracellular nucleotides, including ATP, are locally released by the airway epithelium and stimulate ciliary activity in a [Ca²⁺ ]_i -dependent manner after mechanical stimulation of ciliated cells. However, it is unclear whether the ATP released is involved in regulating basal ciliary activity and mediating changes in ciliary activity in response to chemical stimulation. In the present study, we evaluated ciliary beat frequency (CBF) and ciliary beating forces in primary cultures from mouse tracheal epithelium, using videomicroscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM), respectively. Extracellular ATP levels and [Ca²⁺ ]_i were measured by luminometric and fluorimetric assays, respectively. Uptake of ethidium bromide was measured to evaluate hemichannel functionality. We show that hydrolysis of constitutive extracellular ATP levels with apyrase (50 U ml^-1 ) reduced basal CBF by 45% and ciliary force by 67%. The apyrase effect on CBF was potentiated by carbenoxolone, a hemichannel inhibitor, and oxidized ATP, an antagonist used to block P2X7 receptors, which reduced basal CBF by 85%. Additionally, increasing extracellular ATP levels (0.1-100 μm) increased CBF, maintaining a sustained response that was suppressed in the presence of carbenoxolone. We also show that high levels of ATP (1 mm), associated with inflammatory conditions, lowered basal CBF by reducing [Ca²⁺ ]_i and hemichannel functionality. In summary, we provide evidence indicating that airway epithelium ATP release is the molecular autocrine mechanism regulating basal ciliary activity and is also the mediator of the ciliary response to chemical stimulation.

Role of ATP as a Key Signaling Molecule Mediating Radiation-Induced Biological Effects

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) serves as a signaling molecule for adaptive responses to a variety of cytotoxic agents and plays an important role in mediating the radiation stress-induced responses that serve to mitigate or repair the injurious effects of γ radiation on the body. Indeed, low doses of radiation may have a net beneficial effect by activating a variety of protective mechanisms, including antitumor immune responses. On the other hand, ATP signaling may be involved in the radiation resistance of cancer cells. Here, focusing on our previous work, we review the evidence that low-dose γ irradiation (0.25-0.5 Gy) induces release of extracellular ATP, and that the released ATP mediates multiple radiation-induced responses, including increased intracellular antioxidant synthesis, cell-mediated immune responses, induction of DNA damage repair systems, and differentiation of regulatory T cells.

Radiosensitizing Effect of TRPV1 Channel Inhibitors in Cancer Cells

Radiosensitizers are used in cancer therapy to increase the γ-irradiation susceptibility of cancer cells, including radioresistant hypoxic cancer cells within solid tumors, so that radiotherapy can be applied at doses sufficiently low to minimize damage to adjacent normal tissues. Radiation-induced DNA damage is repaired by multiple repair systems, and therefore these systems are potential targets for radiosensitizers. We recently reported that the transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) channel is involved in early responses to DNA damage after γ-irradiation of human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells. Therefore, we hypothesized that TRPV1 channel inhibitors would have a radiosensitizing effect by blocking repair of radiation-induced cell damage. Here, we show that pretreatment of A549 cells with the TRPV1 channel inhibitors capsazepine, AMG9810, SB366791 and BCTC suppressed the γ-ray-induced activation of early DNA damage responses, i.e., activation of the protein kinase ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and accumulation of p53-binding protein 1 (53BP1). Further, the decrease of survival fraction at one week after γ-irradiation (2.0 Gy) was enhanced by pretreatment of cells with these inhibitors. On the other hand, inhibitor pretreatment did not affect cell viability, the number of apoptotic or necrotic cells, or DNA synthesis at 24 h after irradiation. These results suggest that inhibition of DNA repair by TRPV1 channel inhibitors in irradiated A549 cells caused gradual loss of proliferative ability, rather than acute facilitation of apoptosis or necrosis. TRPV1 channel inhibitors could be novel candidates for radiosensitizers to improve the efficacy of radiation therapy, either alone or in combination with other types of radiosensitizers.

Purinergic Signaling Is a Novel Mechanism of the Cellular Response to Ionizing Radiation

Recent studies suggest the effect of radiation is observed not only in irradiated cells but also in adjacent non-irradiated cells (bystander effect), although the mechanism has not yet been fully revealed. This bystander effect may be caused by intercellular communication via a gap junction or by messengers released from irradiated cells, such as reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide, or cytokines. However, an unknown mechanism is also possible in the bystander effect. On the other hand, it is known that extracellular ATP, ADP, uridine 5'-triphosphate (UTP), and uridine 5'-diphosphate (UDP), which are released from cells, act as intercellular signaling molecules by activating purinergic P2X and P2Y receptors (purinergic signaling). Recently, I have suggested these extracellular nucleotides may be novel mediators of a radiation-induced bystander effect, because our recent studies indicated that purinergic signaling is involved in important cellular responses to radiation. Our data indicate that ionizing irradiation causes activation of the transient receptor potential melastatin type 2 (TRPM2) channel, and then ATP is released from cells through the anion channel or connexin43 hemichannel mediated by the activation of a P2X7 receptor. The released nucleotides activate P2Y6 and P2Y12 receptors, which are involved in the DNA damage response after irradiation. Activation of the P2Y6 receptor is also involved in radiation-induced activation of the epithelial growth factor receptor-extracellular signal regulated protein kinase (EGFR-ERK)1/2 pathway and subsequent nuclear translocation of EGFR, which plays a role in DNA repair. Further, the induction of an antioxidant after irradiation is also mediated by the activation of the P2Y receptor. In conclusion, purinergic signaling could play an important role in the protective cellular response to ionizing irradiation.

Purinergic signaling during macrophage differentiation results in M2 alternative activated macrophages

Macrophages represent a highly heterogenic cell population of the innate immune system, with important roles in the initiation and resolution of the inflammatory response. Purinergic signaling regulates both M1 and M2 macrophage function at different levels by controlling the secretion of cytokines, phagocytosis, and the production of reactive oxygen species. We found that extracellular nucleotides arrest macrophage differentiation from bone marrow precursors via adenosine and P2 receptors. This results in a mature macrophage with increased expression of M2, but not M1, genes. Similar to adenosine and ATP, macrophage growth arrested with LPS treatment resulted in an increase of the M2-related marker Ym1. Recombinant Ym1 was able to affect macrophage proliferation and could, potentially, be involved in the arrest of macrophage growth during hematopoiesis.

Autocrine Regulation of UVA-Induced IL-6 Production via Release of ATP and Activation of P2Y Receptors

Extracellular nucleotides, such as ATP, are released from cells in response to various stimuli and act as intercellular signaling molecules through activation of P2 receptors. Exposure to the ultraviolet radiation A (UVA) component of sunlight causes molecular and cellular damage, and in this study, we investigated the involvement of extracellular nucleotides and P2 receptors in the UVA-induced cellular response. Human keratinocyte-derived HaCaT cells were irradiated with a single dose of UVA (2.5 J/cm²), and ATP release and interleukin (IL)-6 production were measured. ATP was released from cells in response to UVA irradiation, and the release was blocked by pretreatment with inhibitors of gap junction hemichannels or P2X7 receptor antagonist. IL-6 production was increased after UVA irradiation, and this increase was inhibited by ecto-nucleotidase or by antagonists of P2Y11 or P2Y13 receptor. These results suggest that UVA-induced IL-6 production is mediated by release of ATP through hemichannels and P2X7 receptor, followed by activation of P2Y11 and P2Y13 receptors. Interestingly, P2Y11 and P2Y13 were associated with the same pattern of IL-6 production, though they trigger different intracellular signaling cascades: Ca²⁺-dependent and PI3K-dependent, respectively. Thus, IL-6 production in response to UVA-induced ATP release involves at least two distinct pathways, mediated by activation of P2Y11 and P2Y13 receptors.

[Involvement of ATP in radiation-induced bystander effect as a signaling molecule]

We previously reported that low doses (0.25-0.5 Gy) of γ-rays induce intracellular antioxidant, radioresistant, DNA damage repair, and so on. Meanwhile, we have recently reported that ATP is released from the cells exposed to low-dose γ-rays. Here, it was investigated whether or not γ-radiation-induced release of extracellular ATP contributes to various radiation effects, in paricular, focusing on the inductions of intracellular antioxidant and DNA damage repair. Irradiation with γ-rays or exogenously added ATP increased expression of intracellular antioxidants such as thioredoxin and the increases were blocked by pretreatment with an ecto-nucleotidase in both cases. Moreover, release of ATP and autocrine/paracrine positive feedback through P2Y receptors serve to amplify the cellular repair response to radiation-induced DNA damage. To sum up, it would be suggested that ATP signaling is important for the effective induction of radiation stress response, such as protection of the body from the radiation and DNA damage repair. In addition, the possibility that this signaling is involved in the radiation resistance of cancer cells and beneficial effect on the organism of low-dose radiation and radiation adaptive response, would be further suggested.

Role of gap junction intercellular communication in testicular leydig cell apoptosis induced by oxaliplatin via the mitochondrial pathway

Platinum agents are widely used in the chemotherapy of testicular cancer. However, adverse reactions and resistance to such agents have limited their application in antineoplastic treatment. The aim of the present study was to determine the role of gap junction intercellular communication (GJIC) composed of Cx43 on oxaliplatin‑induced survival/apoptosis in mouse leydig normal and cancer cells using MTT, Annexin V/PI double staining assays and western blot analysis. The results showed that GJIC exerted opposite effects on the mouse leydig cancer (I-10) and normal (TM3) cell apoptosis induced by oxaliplatin. In leydig cancer cells, survival of cells exposed to oxaliplatin was substantially reduced when gap junctions formed as compared to no gap junctions. Pharmacological inhibition of gap junctions by oleamide and 18-α-glycyrrhetinic acid resulted in enhanced survival/decreased apoptosis while enhancement of gap junctions by retinoic acid led to decreased survival/increased apoptosis. These effects occurred only in high‑density cultures (gap junction formed), while the pharmacological modulations had no effects when there was no opportunity for gap junction formation. Notably, GJIC played an opposite (protective) role in normal leydig cells survival/apoptosis following exposure to oxaliplatin. Furthermore, this converse oxaliplatin‑inducing apoptosis exerted through the functional gap junction was correlated with the mitochondrial pathway‑related protein Bcl-2/Bax and caspase‑3/9. These results suggested that in testicular leydig normal/cancer cells, GJIC plays an opposite role in oxaliplatin‑induced apoptosis via the mitochondrial pathway.

Purine receptor P2Y6 mediates cellular response to γ-ray-induced DNA damage

We previously showed that nucleotide P2 receptor agonists such as ATP and UTP amplify γ-ray-induced focus formation of phosphorylated histone H2A variant H2AX (γH2AX), which is considered to be an indicator of DNA damage so far, by activating purine P2Y6 and P2Y12 receptors. Therefore, we hypothesized that these P2 receptors play a role in inducing the repair response to γ-ray-induced DNA damage. In the present study, we tested this idea by using human lung cancer A549 cells. First, reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) showed that P2Y6 receptor is highly expressed in A549 cells, but P2Y12 receptor is only weakly expressed. Next, colony formation assay revealed that P2Y6 receptor antagonist MRS2578 markedly reduced the survival rate of γ-ray-exposed A549 cells. The survival rate was also significantly reduced in P2Y6-knock-down cells, compared with scramble siRNA-transfected cells. Since it has reported that phosphorylation of ERK1/2 after activation of EGFR via P2Y6 and P2Y12 receptors is involved in the repair response to γ-ray-induced DNA damage, we next examined whether γ-ray-induced phosphorylation of ERK1/2 was also inhibited by MRS2578 in A549 cells. We found that it was. Taken together, these findings indicate that purinergic signaling through P2Y6 receptor, followed by ERK1/2 activation, promotes the cellular repair response to γ-ray-induced DNA damage.

Purinergic signalling and cancer

Receptors for extracellular nucleotides are widely expressed by mammalian cells. They mediate a large array of responses ranging from growth stimulation to apoptosis, from chemotaxis to cell differentiation and from nociception to cytokine release, as well as neurotransmission. Pharma industry is involved in the development and clinical testing of drugs selectively targeting the different P1 nucleoside and P2 nucleotide receptor subtypes. As described in detail in the present review, P2 receptors are expressed by all tumours, in some cases to a very high level. Activation or inhibition of selected P2 receptor subtypes brings about cancer cell death or growth inhibition. The field has been largely neglected by current research in oncology, yet the evidence presented in this review, most of which is based on in vitro studies, although with a limited amount from in vivo experiments and human studies, warrants further efforts to explore the therapeutic potential of purinoceptor targeting in cancer.

Possible role of hemichannels in cancer

In humans, connexins (Cxs) and pannexins (Panxs) are the building blocks of hemichannels. These proteins are frequently altered in neoplastic cells and have traditionally been considered as tumor suppressors. Alteration of Cxs and Panxs in cancer cells can be due to genetic, epigenetic and post-transcriptional/post-translational events. Activated hemichannels mediate the diffusional membrane transport of ions and small signaling molecules. In the last decade hemichannels have been shown to participate in diverse cell processes including the modulation of cell proliferation and survival. However, their possible role in tumor growth and expansion remains largely unexplored. Herein, we hypothesize about the possible role of hemichannels in carcinogenesis and tumor progression. To support this theory, we summarize the evidence regarding the involvement of hemichannels in cell proliferation and migration, as well as their possible role in the anti-tumor immune responses. In addition, we discuss the evidence linking hemichannels with cancer in diverse models and comment on the current technical limitations for their study.

Purinergic signaling via P2X7 receptor mediates IL-1β production in Kupffer cells exposed to silica nanoparticle

There is extensive evidence that nanoparticles (NPs) cause adverse effects in multiple organs, including liver, though the mechanisms involved remain to be fully established. Kupffer cells are macrophages resident in the liver, and play important roles in liver inflammation induced by various toxic agents, including lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Interleukin-1 (IL-1) family members IL-1α,β are released from LPS-primed macrophages exposed to NPs, including silica NPs (SNPs), via activation of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 inflammasomes. Here, we investigated the mechanism of production of IL-1β via activation of inflammasomes in mouse Kupffer cell line KUP5, focusing on the role of purinergic signaling via P2X7 receptor. IL-1β production by LPS-primed KUP5 cells exposed to SNPs was increased dose-dependently, and was greatest in response to SNPs with a diameter of 30 nm (SNP30), as compared with 70-nm and 300-nm SNPs (SNP70 and SNP300). ATP release was also highest in cells exposed to SNP30. Treatment of LPS-primed KUP5 cells with ATP also induced a high level of IL-1β production, similar to that induced by SNP30. IL-1β production was significantly inhibited by apyrase (an ecto-nucleotidase) and A438079 (a P2X7 antagonist/ATP-release inhibitor). Production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was confirmed in cells exposed to SNP30. In conclusion, ATP released from P2X7 receptor in response to stimulation of KUP5 cells with SNP30 induces ROS production via cell-membrane NADPH oxidase. The ROS causes activation of inflammasomes, leading to caspase-1-dependent processing of IL-1β.

Metabolomics and transcriptomics demonstrate severe oxidative stress in both localized chemotherapy-treated and bystander tumors

BACKGROUND

Localized radiotherapy is long known to cause damages to not only targeted but also non-targeted cells, the so-called bystander (BS) effect. Recently, BS effect was demonstrated in response to chemotherapy. To get further insight into the mechanism of chemotherapy-induced BS effect in vivo, we investigated the response of normal tissues and untreated BS melanomas, at distance from localized chemotherapy-treated melanomas.

METHODS

B16 melanoma cells were inoculated sc in one flank, in mice. Chemotherapy was administered intratumorally. After 3 weeks, untreated melanomas were implanted into the other flank. Tumors were analyzed morphologically, and using metabolomics and transcriptomics.

RESULTS

Locally-treated melanomas showed growth inhibition and pleiotropic metabolic and transcriptional alterations. Tumors recovered slow proliferation while exhibiting prominent oxidative stress response (decreased glutathione level, and increased expression of genes including Mt1, Gpx3, Sod3, and Hmox1). Plasma contained increased levels of oxidative stress products. However, liver and soleus muscle displayed unaltered morphological characteristics. In contrast, untreated BS melanomas induced from naive B16 cells showed reduced growth, marked oxidative stress response (decreased glutathione level, and increased expression of genes including Sod2, Gpx1 and Gsr), and ras oncogene expression alterations. Furthermore, metabolomics and transcriptomics enabled to estimate the proportion of cells undergoing the BS effect within treated tumors.

CONCLUSION

Treatment of tumors with chemotherapy induces BS effects, underpinned by oxidative stress, in abnormal proliferating tissues in vivo, not in normal tissue, that significantly contribute to overall tumor response. General significance BS effect significantly contributes to response to chemotherapy, and may be exploited to improve overall response to cancer treatment.

The impact of radiation therapy on the antitumor immunity: local effects and systemic consequences

The main antitumor efficacy of irradiation relies in its direct cytotoxic effect. Increasing evidence indicates a systemic effect of radiation though, mediated mainly by the immune system. In this review we wish to focus on the radiotherapy induced modifications of the soluble and cellular mediators of the antitumor immune response and summarize some of the mechanisms by which radiation driven local and systemic bystander effects can influence tumor immunogenicity. In different tumor types due to the intrinsic immunogenicity of the tumor cells and the immunological characteristics of the tumor microenvironment, different radiation induced immune modulatory mechanisms are predominant. Radiation most probably can only amplify or augment a pro-immunogenic phenotype and can hardly change by itself a net immune suppressing environment into an immune stimulating one. This immune modulatory potential of radiotherapy could be exploited in tumor treatment by developing combined radiotherapeutic and immunotherapeutic approaches. The last few years showed a dramatic increase in the knowledge of radiation induced out-of field and systemic effects, which foresees a rapid progress in the development and clinical application of these new, combined therapies for cancer cure.

Ionizing radiation, ion transports, and radioresistance of cancer cells

The standard treatment of many tumor entities comprises fractionated radiation therapy which applies ionizing radiation to the tumor-bearing target volume. Ionizing radiation causes double-strand breaks in the DNA backbone that result in cell death if the number of DNA double-strand breaks exceeds the DNA repair capacity of the tumor cell. Ionizing radiation reportedly does not only act on the DNA in the nucleus but also on the plasma membrane. In particular, ionizing radiation-induced modifications of ion channels and transporters have been reported. Importantly, these altered transports seem to contribute to the survival of the irradiated tumor cells. The present review article summarizes our current knowledge on the underlying mechanisms and introduces strategies to radiosensitize tumor cells by targeting plasma membrane ion transports.

Conserved glycine at position 45 of major cochlear connexins constitutes a vital component of the Ca²⁺ sensor for gating of gap junction hemichannels

Mutations in gap junction (GJ) family of proteins, especially in the connexin (Cx) 26, are responsible for causing severe congenital hearing loss in a significant portion of patients (30-50% in various ethnic groups). Substitution of glycine at the position 45 of Cx26 to glutamic acid (p.G45E mutation) causes the Keratitis-ichthyosis-deafness (KID) syndrome. Previous studies have suggested that this point mutation caused a gain-of-function defect. However, the molecular mechanism of KID syndrome remains unclear. Since glycine at this position is conserved in many Cxs expressed in the cochlea, we tested the hypothesis that glycine at position 45 is an important component of the sensor regulating the Ca(2+) gating of GJ hemichannels. Using reconstituted Cx30, 32 and 43 expressed in the HEK 293 cells, we compared the functions of wild type and p.G45E mutant Cxs. We found that G45E in Cx30 resulted in similar deleterious cellular effects as Cx26 did. Cell death occurred within 24h of transfection, which was rescued by increasing extracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]o). Dye loading assay showed that Cx30 G45E, similar to Cx26 G45E, had leaky hemichannels at physiological [Ca(2+)]o (1.2 mM). Higher [Ca(2+)]o reduced the dye loading in a dose-dependent manner. Whole cell membrane current recordings also indicated that G45E caused increased hemichannel activities. p.G45E mutations of Cx32 and 43 also resulted in leaky hemichannels compared to their respective wild types in lower [Ca(2+)]o. Our data in this study provided further support for the hypothesis that glycine at position 45 is a conserved Ca(2+) sensor for the gating of GJ hemichannels among multiple Cx subtypes expressed in the cochlea.

Role of TRPM2 and TRPV1 cation channels in cellular responses to radiation-induced DNA damage

BACKGROUND

Radiation exposure causes DNA damage, and DNA repair systems are essential to rescue damaged cells. Although DNA damage or oxidative stress activates transient receptor potential melastatin 2 (TRPM2) and vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) cation channels, it has not been established whether these TRP channels are involved in cellular responses to radiation-induced DNA damage. Here, we investigated the contribution of TRPM2 and TRPV1 channels to γ-irradiation- and UVB-induced DNA damage responses in human lung cancer A549 cells.

METHODS

A549 cells were irradiated with γ-rays (2.0Gy) or UVB (5-10mJ/cm(2)). γH2AX foci, ATM activation, 53BP1 accumulation and EGFR expression were evaluated by immunofluorescence staining. Extracellular ATP concentration was measured by luciferin-luciferase assay. Knockdown of TRPM2 and TRPV1 expression was done by siRNA transfection.

RESULTS

γ-Irradiation-induced γH2AX focus formation, ATM activation, 53BP1 accumulation and EGFR nuclear translocation, which are all associated with DNA repair, were suppressed by knockdown of TRPM2 and TRPV1 channels in A549 cells. Release of ATP, which mediates DNA damage response-associated activation of P2Y receptors, was suppressed by pre-treatment with catalase or knockdown of TRPM2 channel, but not TRPV1 channel. Similarly, UVB-induced γH2AX focus formation was suppressed in TRPM2- and TRPV1-knockdown cells, while UVB-induced ATP release was blocked in TRPM2- but not TRPV1-knockdown cells.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that the activation of TRPM2 channel, which mediates ATP release, and TRPV1 channel plays significant roles in the cellular responses to DNA damage induced by γ-irradiation and UVB irradiation.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Our results provide a new insight into the function of TRP channels from the viewpoint of radiation biology.

Gap junctions and Bystander Effects: Good Samaritans and executioners

The "Bystander" and "Good Samaritan" effects involve the transfer of toxic or beneficial compounds from one cell to a generally adjacent other through gap junction channels and through extracellular routes. The variety of injuries in which bystander cell killing or protection occurs has greatly expanded in the last decade to include infectious agents and therapeutic compounds, radiation injury, chaperones in cell therapy and apoptosis in development. This has been accompanied by the appreciation that both gap junction mediated and paracrine routes are used for the signaling of the "kiss of life" and the "kiss of death" and that manipulations of these pathways and the molecules that use them may find therapeutic utility in treatment of a variety of pathological conditions.

Autocrine regulation of γ-irradiation-induced DNA damage response via extracellular nucleotides-mediated activation of P2Y6 and P2Y12 receptors

A key component of the response to DNA damage caused by ionizing radiation is DNA repair. Release of extracellular nucleotides, such as ATP, from cells plays a role in signaling via P2 receptors. We show here that release of ATP, followed by activation of P2Y receptors, is involved in the response to γ-irradiation-induced DNA damage. Formation of phosphorylated histone variant H2AX (γH2AX) foci, which are induced in nuclei by DNA damage and contribute to accumulation of DNA-repair factors, was increased at 1-3h after γ-ray irradiation (2.0Gy) of human lung cancer A549 cells. Focus formation was suppressed by pre-treatment with the ecto-nucleotidase apyrase. Pre-treatment with ecto-nucleotidase inhibitor ARL67156 or post-treatment with ATP or UTP facilitated induction of γH2AX, indicating that extracellular nucleotides play a role in induction of γH2AX foci. Next, we examined the effect of P2 receptor inhibitors on activation of ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM; a protein kinase) and accumulation of 53BP1 (a DNA repair factor), both of which are important for DNA repair, at DNA damage sites. P2Y6 receptor antagonist MRS2578, P2Y12 receptor antagonist clopidogrel, and P2X7 receptor antagonists A438079 and oxATP significantly inhibited these processes. Release of ATP was detected within 2.5min after irradiation, but was blocked by A438079. Activation of ATM and accumulation of 53BP1 were decreased in P2Y6 or P2Y12 receptor-knockdown cells. We conclude that autocrine/paracrine signaling through P2X7-dependent ATP release and activation of P2Y6 and P2Y12 receptors serves to amplify the cellular response to DNA damage caused by γ-irradiation.