1
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Choi SS, Mc Cartney A, Park D, Roberts H, Brav-Cubitt T, Mitchell C, Buckley TR. Multiple hybridization events and repeated evolution of homoeologue expression bias in parthenogenetic, polyploid New Zealand stick insects. Mol Ecol 2024:e17422. [PMID: 38842022 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
During hybrid speciation, homoeologues combine in a single genome. Homoeologue expression bias (HEB) occurs when one homoeologue has higher gene expression than another. HEB has been well characterized in plants but rarely investigated in animals, especially invertebrates. Consequently, we have little idea as to the role that HEB plays in allopolyploid invertebrate genomes. If HEB is constrained by features of the parental genomes, then we predict repeated evolution of similar HEB patterns among hybrid genomes formed from the same parental lineages. To address this, we reconstructed the history of hybridization between the New Zealand stick insect genera Acanthoxyla and Clitarchus using a high-quality genome assembly from Clitarchus hookeri to call variants and phase alleles. These analyses revealed the formation of three independent diploid and triploid hybrid lineages between these genera. RNA sequencing revealed a similar magnitude and direction of HEB among these hybrid lineages, and we observed that many enriched functions and pathways were also shared among lineages, consistent with repeated evolution due to parental genome constraints. In most hybrid lineages, a slight majority of the genes involved in mitochondrial function showed HEB towards the maternal homoeologues, consistent with only weak effects of mitonuclear incompatibility. We also observed a proteasome functional enrichment in most lineages and hypothesize this may result from the need to maintain proteostasis in hybrid genomes. Reference bias was a pervasive problem, and we caution against relying on HEB estimates from a single parental reference genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Sub Choi
- Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research, Auckland, New Zealand
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ann Mc Cartney
- Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Duckchul Park
- Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Hester Roberts
- Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research, Auckland, New Zealand
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2
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June V, Xu D, Papoulas O, Boutz D, Marcotte EM, Chen ZJ. Protein nonadditive expression and solubility contribute to heterosis in Arabidopsis hybrids and allotetraploids. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1252564. [PMID: 37780492 PMCID: PMC10538547 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1252564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Hybrid vigor or heterosis has been widely applied in agriculture and extensively studied using genetic and gene expression approaches. However, the biochemical mechanism underlying heterosis remains elusive. One theory suggests that a decrease in protein aggregation may occur in hybrids due to the presence of protein variants between parental alleles, but it has not been experimentally tested. Here, we report comparative analysis of soluble and insoluble proteomes in Arabidopsis intraspecific and interspecific hybrids or allotetraploids formed between A. thaliana and A. arenosa. Both allotetraploids and intraspecific hybrids displayed nonadditive expression (unequal to the sum of the two parents) of the proteins, most of which were involved in biotic and abiotic stress responses. In the allotetraploids, homoeolog-expression bias was not observed among all proteins examined but accounted for 17-20% of the nonadditively expressed proteins, consistent with the transcriptome results. Among expression-biased homoeologs, there were more A. thaliana-biased than A. arenosa-biased homoeologs. Analysis of the insoluble and soluble proteomes revealed more soluble proteins in the hybrids than their parents but not in the allotetraploids. Most proteins in ribosomal biosynthesis and in the thylakoid lumen, membrane, and stroma were in the soluble fractions, indicating a role of protein stability in photosynthetic activities for promoting growth. Thus, nonadditive expression of stress-responsive proteins and increased solubility of photosynthetic proteins may contribute to heterosis in Arabidopsis hybrids and allotetraploids and possibly hybrid crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana June
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States
| | - Dongqing Xu
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ophelia Papoulas
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States
| | - Daniel Boutz
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States
| | - Edward M. Marcotte
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States
| | - Z. Jeffrey Chen
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States
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3
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Chen YH, Chao KH, Wong JY, Liu CF, Leu JY, Tsai HK. A feature extraction free approach for protein interactome inference from co-elution data. Brief Bioinform 2023; 24:bbad229. [PMID: 37328692 DOI: 10.1093/bib/bbad229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein complexes are key functional units in cellular processes. High-throughput techniques, such as co-fractionation coupled with mass spectrometry (CF-MS), have advanced protein complex studies by enabling global interactome inference. However, dealing with complex fractionation characteristics to define true interactions is not a simple task, since CF-MS is prone to false positives due to the co-elution of non-interacting proteins by chance. Several computational methods have been designed to analyze CF-MS data and construct probabilistic protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks. Current methods usually first infer PPIs based on handcrafted CF-MS features, and then use clustering algorithms to form potential protein complexes. While powerful, these methods suffer from the potential bias of handcrafted features and severely imbalanced data distribution. However, the handcrafted features based on domain knowledge might introduce bias, and current methods also tend to overfit due to the severely imbalanced PPI data. To address these issues, we present a balanced end-to-end learning architecture, Software for Prediction of Interactome with Feature-extraction Free Elution Data (SPIFFED), to integrate feature representation from raw CF-MS data and interactome prediction by convolutional neural network. SPIFFED outperforms the state-of-the-art methods in predicting PPIs under the conventional imbalanced training. When trained with balanced data, SPIFFED had greatly improved sensitivity for true PPIs. Moreover, the ensemble SPIFFED model provides different voting schemes to integrate predicted PPIs from multiple CF-MS data. Using the clustering software (i.e. ClusterONE), SPIFFED allows users to infer high-confidence protein complexes depending on the CF-MS experimental designs. The source code of SPIFFED is freely available at: https://github.com/bio-it-station/SPIFFED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Hsin Chen
- Bioinformatics Program, Taiwan International Graduate Program, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
- Bioinformatics Program, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academic Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
- Institute of Information Science, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Kuan-Hao Chao
- Institute of Information Science, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Jin Yung Wong
- Institute of Information Science, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Fu Liu
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Jun-Yi Leu
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Huai-Kuang Tsai
- Bioinformatics Program, Taiwan International Graduate Program, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
- Bioinformatics Program, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academic Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
- Institute of Information Science, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
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4
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Thattai M. Molecular and cellular constraints on vesicle traffic evolution. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2023; 80:102151. [PMID: 36610080 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2022.102151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In eukaryotic cells, the budding and fusion of intracellular transport vesicles is carefully orchestrated in space and time. Locally, a vesicle's source compartment, its cargo, and its destination compartment are controlled by dynamic multi-protein specificity modules. Globally, vesicle constituents must be recycled to ensure homeostasis of compartment compositions. The emergence of a novel vesicle pathway therefore requires new specificity modules as well as new recycling routes. Here, we review recent research on local (molecular) constraints on gene module duplication and global (cellular) constraints on intracellular recycling. By studying the evolution of vesicle traffic, we may discover general principles of how complex traits arise via multiple intermediate steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mukund Thattai
- Simons Centre for the Study of Living Machines, National Centre for Biological Sciences, TIFR, Bangalore, India.
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5
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Swamy KBS, Lee HY, Ladra C, Liu CFJ, Chao JC, Chen YY, Leu JY. Proteotoxicity caused by perturbed protein complexes underlies hybrid incompatibility in yeast. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4394. [PMID: 35906261 PMCID: PMC9338014 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32107-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibilities represent a major driver of reproductive isolation between species. They are caused when interacting components encoded by alleles from different species cannot function properly when mixed. At incipient stages of speciation, complex incompatibilities involving multiple genetic loci with weak effects are frequently observed, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here we show perturbed proteostasis leading to compromised mitosis and meiosis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae hybrid lines carrying one or two chromosomes from Saccharomyces bayanus var. uvarum. Levels of proteotoxicity are correlated with the number of protein complexes on replaced chromosomes. Proteomic approaches reveal that multi-protein complexes with subunits encoded by replaced chromosomes tend to be unstable. Furthermore, hybrid defects can be alleviated or aggravated, respectively, by up- or down-regulating the ubiquitin-proteasomal degradation machinery, suggesting that destabilized complex subunits overburden the proteostasis machinery and compromise hybrid fitness. Our findings reveal the general role of impaired protein complex assembly in complex incompatibilities. Hybrid incompatibility can be an important element of reproductive isolation and speciation. Using chromosome replacement lines of yeast, the authors show that perturbed proteostasis caused by destabilized hybrid protein complexes may represent a general mechanism of hybrid incompatibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishna B S Swamy
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan.,Division of Biological and Life Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Ahmedabad University, Ahmedabad, 380009, India
| | - Hsin-Yi Lee
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Carmina Ladra
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Fu Jeff Liu
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Jung-Chi Chao
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Yun Chen
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Jun-Yi Leu
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan.
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6
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Visinoni F, Delneri D. Mitonuclear interplay in yeast: from speciation to phenotypic adaptation. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2022; 76:101957. [PMID: 35870233 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2022.101957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Saccharomyces yeasts have evolved into an important model system to study mitonuclear incompatibilities, thanks to recent advances in the field of sequencing, yeast hybridisation and multigenerational breeding. Yeast hybrids contain two homologous proteomes but retain only one type of mitochondria allowing studies on the effect of mitochondria on phenotype and gene expression. Here, we discuss the recent developments in the growing field of yeast mitogenomics spanning from the impact that this organelle has in shaping yeast fitness and genome evolution to the dissection of molecular determinants of mitonuclear incompatibilities. Applying the state-of-the-art genetic tools to a broader range of natural yeast species from different environments will help progress the field and untap the mitochondrial potential in strain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Visinoni
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Daniela Delneri
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom.
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7
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Purkanti R, Thattai M. Genome doubling enabled the expansion of yeast vesicle traffic pathways. Sci Rep 2022; 12:11213. [PMID: 35780185 PMCID: PMC9250509 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-15419-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Vesicle budding and fusion in eukaryotes depend on a suite of protein types, such as Arfs, Rabs, coats and SNAREs. Distinct paralogs of these proteins act at distinct intracellular locations, suggesting a link between gene duplication and the expansion of vesicle traffic pathways. Genome doubling, a common source of paralogous genes in fungi, provides an ideal setting in which to explore this link. Here we trace the fates of paralog doublets derived from the 100-Ma-old hybridization event that gave rise to the whole genome duplication clade of budding yeast. We find that paralog doublets involved in specific vesicle traffic functions and pathways are convergently retained across the entire clade. Vesicle coats and adaptors involved in secretory and early-endocytic pathways are retained as doublets, at rates several-fold higher than expected by chance. Proteins involved in later endocytic steps and intra-Golgi traffic, including the entire set of multi-subunit and coiled-coil tethers, have reverted to singletons. These patterns demonstrate that selection has acted to expand and diversify the yeast vesicle traffic apparatus, across species and time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramya Purkanti
- Center for Integrative Genomics, Université de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Mukund Thattai
- Simons Centre for the Study of Living Machines, National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, India.
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8
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Moran BM, Payne C, Langdon Q, Powell DL, Brandvain Y, Schumer M. The genomic consequences of hybridization. eLife 2021; 10:e69016. [PMID: 34346866 PMCID: PMC8337078 DOI: 10.7554/elife.69016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past decade, advances in genome sequencing have allowed researchers to uncover the history of hybridization in diverse groups of species, including our own. Although the field has made impressive progress in documenting the extent of natural hybridization, both historical and recent, there are still many unanswered questions about its genetic and evolutionary consequences. Recent work has suggested that the outcomes of hybridization in the genome may be in part predictable, but many open questions about the nature of selection on hybrids and the biological variables that shape such selection have hampered progress in this area. We synthesize what is known about the mechanisms that drive changes in ancestry in the genome after hybridization, highlight major unresolved questions, and discuss their implications for the predictability of genome evolution after hybridization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M Moran
- Department of Biology, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
- Centro de Investigaciones Científicas de las Huastecas “Aguazarca”HidalgoMexico
| | - Cheyenne Payne
- Department of Biology, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
- Centro de Investigaciones Científicas de las Huastecas “Aguazarca”HidalgoMexico
| | - Quinn Langdon
- Department of Biology, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Daniel L Powell
- Department of Biology, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
- Centro de Investigaciones Científicas de las Huastecas “Aguazarca”HidalgoMexico
| | - Yaniv Brandvain
- Department of Ecology, Evolution & Behavior and Plant and Microbial Biology, University of MinnesotaMinneapolisUnited States
| | - Molly Schumer
- Department of Biology, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
- Centro de Investigaciones Científicas de las Huastecas “Aguazarca”HidalgoMexico
- Hanna H. Gray Fellow, Howard Hughes Medical InstituteStanfordUnited States
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9
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Interspecific hybridization as a driver of fungal evolution and adaptation. Nat Rev Microbiol 2021; 19:485-500. [PMID: 33767366 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-021-00537-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Cross-species gene transfer is often associated with bacteria, which have evolved several mechanisms that facilitate horizontal DNA exchange. However, the increased availability of whole-genome sequences has revealed that fungal species also exchange DNA, leading to intertwined lineages, blurred species boundaries or even novel species. In contrast to prokaryotes, fungal DNA exchange originates from interspecific hybridization, where two genomes are merged into a single, often highly unstable, polyploid genome that evolves rapidly into stabler derivatives. The resulting hybrids can display novel combinations of genetic and phenotypic variation that enhance fitness and allow colonization of new niches. Interspecific hybridization led to the emergence of important pathogens of humans and plants (for example, various Candida and 'powdery mildew' species, respectively) and industrially important yeasts, such as Saccharomyces hybrids that are important in the production of cold-fermented lagers or cold-cellared Belgian ales. In this Review, we discuss the genetic processes and evolutionary implications of fungal interspecific hybridization and highlight some of the best-studied examples. In addition, we explain how hybrids can be used to study molecular mechanisms underlying evolution, adaptation and speciation, and serve as a route towards development of new variants for industrial applications.
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10
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Lin CL, García-Caro RDLC, Zhang P, Carlin S, Gottlieb A, Petersen MA, Vrhovsek U, Bond U. Packing a punch: understanding how flavours are produced in lager fermentations. FEMS Yeast Res 2021; 21:6316108. [PMID: 34227660 PMCID: PMC8310685 DOI: 10.1093/femsyr/foab040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Beer is one of the most popular beverages in the world and it has an irreplaceable place in culture. Although invented later than ale, lager beers dominate the current market. Many factors relating to the appearance (colour, clarity and foam stability) and sensory characters (flavour, taste and aroma) of beer, and other psychological determinants affect consumers' perception of the product and defines its drinkability. This review takes a wholistic approach to scrutinise flavour generation in the brewing process, focusing particularly on the contribution of the raw ingredients and the yeasts to the final flavour profiles of lager beers. In addition, we examine current developments to improve lager beer flavour profiles for the modern consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Lin Lin
- Brewing 345, Novozymes A/S, Biologiensvej 2, 2800 Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark.,Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 26, 1958 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | | | - Penghan Zhang
- Metabolomic Unit, Food Quality and Nutrition Department, Research and Innovation Centre, Edmund Mach Foundation, Via E.Mach 1, 38010 S.Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Silvia Carlin
- Metabolomic Unit, Food Quality and Nutrition Department, Research and Innovation Centre, Edmund Mach Foundation, Via E.Mach 1, 38010 S.Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Andrea Gottlieb
- Brewing 345, Novozymes A/S, Biologiensvej 2, 2800 Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Mikael Agerlin Petersen
- Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 26, 1958 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Urska Vrhovsek
- Metabolomic Unit, Food Quality and Nutrition Department, Research and Innovation Centre, Edmund Mach Foundation, Via E.Mach 1, 38010 S.Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Ursula Bond
- School of Genetics and Microbiology, The Moyne Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
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11
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Berger CM, Landry CR. Yeast proteins do not practice social distancing as species hybridize. Curr Genet 2021; 67:755-759. [PMID: 33948708 PMCID: PMC8096128 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-021-01188-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
With the current COVID-19 pandemic, we all realized how important interactions are. Interactions are everywhere. At the cellular level, protein interactions play a key role and their ensemble, also called interactome, is often referred as the basic building blocks of life. Given its importance, the maintenance of the integrity of the interactome is a real challenge in the cell. Many events during evolution can disrupt interactomes and potentially result in different characteristics for the organisms. However, the molecular underpinnings of changes in interactions at the cellular level are still largely unexplored. Among the perturbations, hybridization puts in contact two different interactomes, which may lead to many changes in the protein interaction network of the hybrid, including gains and losses of interactions. We recently investigated the fate of the interactomes after hybridization between yeast species using a comparative proteomics approach. A large-scale conservation of the interactions was observed in hybrids, but we also noticed the presence of proteostasis-related changes. This suggests that, despite a general robustness, small differences may accumulate in hybrids and perturb their protein physiology. Here, we summarize our work with a broader perspective on the importance of interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline M Berger
- Département de Biologie, Faculté des sciences et de génie, Université Laval, Quebec, QC, G1V0A6, Canada.
- Département de Biochimie, Microbiologie et Bio-informatique, Faculté des sciences et de génie, Université Laval, Quebec, QC, G1V0A6, Canada.
- Le réseau québécois de recherche sur la fonction, la structure et l'ingénierie de protéines, PROTEO, Université Laval, Quebec, QC, G1V0A6, Canada.
- Centre de Recherche en Données Massives (CRDM), Université Laval, Quebec, QC, G1V0A6, Canada.
| | - Christian R Landry
- Département de Biologie, Faculté des sciences et de génie, Université Laval, Quebec, QC, G1V0A6, Canada
- Département de Biochimie, Microbiologie et Bio-informatique, Faculté des sciences et de génie, Université Laval, Quebec, QC, G1V0A6, Canada
- Le réseau québécois de recherche sur la fonction, la structure et l'ingénierie de protéines, PROTEO, Université Laval, Quebec, QC, G1V0A6, Canada
- Centre de Recherche en Données Massives (CRDM), Université Laval, Quebec, QC, G1V0A6, Canada
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