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Kooros SJ, Goossens B, Sterck EHM, Kenderdine R, Malim PT, Ramirez Saldivar DA, Stark DJ. External environmental conditions impact nocturnal activity levels in proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) living in Sabah, Malaysia. Am J Primatol 2022; 84:e23423. [PMID: 35848355 PMCID: PMC9540267 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Recently, several diurnal nonhuman anthropoids have been identified displaying varying degrees of nocturnal activity, which can be influenced by activity “masking effects”—external events or conditions that suppress or trigger activity, temporarily altering normal activity patterns. Environmental masking characteristics include nocturnal temperature, rainfall, cloud cover, and moon brightness. Similarly, other ecological characteristics, including proximity to humans and predators and daytime activity, may also trigger or suppress nocturnal activity. Understanding the effects of external conditions on activity patterns is pertinent to effective species conservation. We investigated the presence of nocturnal activity and the influence of masking effects on the level of nocturnal activity displayed by wild proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Dual‐axis accelerometers were attached by collar to six male proboscis monkeys from different one‐male, multi‐female groups to record activity continuously (165–401 days each). We measured the monkeys' nocturnal and diurnal activity levels and investigated the effects of seven potential masking effects. Nocturnal activity was much lower than diurnal activity. Still, proboscis monkeys did display varying levels of nocturnal activity. Generalized linear mixed models identified higher nocturnal activity in the study individuals during nights with cooler temperatures, higher rainfall, and after higher diurnal activity. These three masking effects affected nocturnal activity levels during the observation period that informed our model, although they did not predict nocturnal activity outside of this period. While the generalizability of these results remains uncertain, this study highlights the utility of accelerometers in identifying activity patterns and masking effects that create variability in these patterns. Six male proboscis monkeys displayed low levels of nocturnal activity, consistent with a diurnal activity pattern. Nocturnal activity in five of these male proboscis monkeys increased during nights that had cooler temperatures, higher rainfall, and after higher daytime activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie J Kooros
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,c/o Sabah Wildlife Department, Danau Girang Field Centre, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Benoit Goossens
- c/o Sabah Wildlife Department, Danau Girang Field Centre, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.,Sabah Wildlife Department, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.,Sustainable Places Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Elisabeth H M Sterck
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | | | - Peter T Malim
- Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Diana A Ramirez Saldivar
- c/o Sabah Wildlife Department, Danau Girang Field Centre, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.,Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Danica J Stark
- c/o Sabah Wildlife Department, Danau Girang Field Centre, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.,Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Motani R, Vermeij GJ. Ecophysiological steps of marine adaptation in extant and extinct non-avian tetrapods. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:1769-1798. [PMID: 33904243 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Marine reptiles and mammals are phylogenetically so distant from each other that their marine adaptations are rarely compared directly. We reviewed ecophysiological features in extant non-avian marine tetrapods representing 31 marine colonizations to test whether there is a common pattern across higher taxonomic groups, such as mammals and reptiles. Marine adaptations in tetrapods can be roughly divided into aquatic and haline adaptations, each of which seems to follow a sequence of three steps. In combination, these six categories exhibit five steps of marine adaptation that apply across all clades except snakes: Step M1, incipient use of marine resources; Step M2, direct feeding in the saline sea; Step M3, water balance maintenance without terrestrial fresh water; Step M4, minimized terrestrial travel and loss of terrestrial feeding; and Step M5, loss of terrestrial thermoregulation and fur/plumage. Acquisition of viviparity is not included because there is no known case where viviparity evolved after a tetrapod lineage colonized the sea. A similar sequence is found in snakes but with the haline adaptation step (Step M3) lagging behind aquatic adaptation (haline adaptation is Step S5 in snakes), most likely because their unique method of water balance maintenance requires a supply of fresh water. The same constraint may limit the maximum body size of fully marine snakes. Steps M4 and M5 in all taxa except snakes are associated with skeletal adaptations that are mechanistically linked to relevant ecophysiological features, allowing assessment of marine adaptation steps in some fossil marine tetrapods. We identified four fossil clades containing members that reached Step M5 outside of stem whales, pinnipeds, sea cows and sea turtles, namely Eosauropterygia, Ichthyosauromorpha, Mosasauroidea, and Thalattosuchia, while five other clades reached Step M4: Saurosphargidae, Placodontia, Dinocephalosaurus, Desmostylia, and Odontochelys. Clades reaching Steps M4 and M5, both extant and extinct, appear to have higher species diversity than those only reaching Steps M1 to M3, while the total number of clades is higher for the earlier steps. This suggests that marine colonizers only diversified greatly after they minimized their use of terrestrial resources, with many lineages not reaching these advanced steps. Historical patterns suggest that a clade does not advance to Steps M4 and M5 unless these steps are reached early in the evolution of the clade. Intermediate forms before a clade reached Steps M4 and M5 tend to become extinct without leaving extant descendants or fossil evidence. This makes it difficult to reconstruct the evolutionary history of marine adaptation in many clades. Clades that reached Steps M4 and M5 tend to last longer than other marine tetrapod clades, sometimes for more than 100 million years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryosuke Motani
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, U.S.A
| | - Geerat J Vermeij
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, U.S.A
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Rachma Jadi A, Rezeki A, Dwi A, Kusindarta L, Wijayanto H. Locomotion Study of Bekantan ( Nasalis larvatus). BIO WEB OF CONFERENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.1051/bioconf/20202004002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The locomotion system in the primate is developed and diverged following the pressure of the environment. To survive, each species of primate will push their locomotor’s evolution to accommodate their foraging activities. Generally, the primate locomotion system is classified into vertical clinging and leaping (such as Tarsius), quadrupedalism (such as guenon), brachiation (such as gibbon), and bipedalism (human). Classification is usually based on the intermembral index, the ratio between the arm and leg length in percentage. The intermembral index of bekantan is about 90 on average; means the arm length is 90% of leg length. Based on the intermembral index, bekantan's locomotion system is hindlimb dominated gait and supposed to be quadrupedal terrestrial. However, in their natural habitat, bekantan spend their daily activities mostly on the trees. Terrestrial and arboreal movements were observed during foraging. Arboreal movements of bekantan are dominant where the forest canopy is remaining good. On the other hand, in open areas and where they have adapted to human existence, quadrupedal terrestrial behaviors will be dominant during foraging. Further observation in various areas is still needed to strengthen the type of locomotion system of bekantan.
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Clauss M, Nurutdinova I, Meloro C, Gunga HC, Jiang D, Koller J, Herkner B, Sander PM, Hellwich O. Reconstruction of body cavity volume in terrestrial tetrapods. J Anat 2016; 230:325-336. [PMID: 27813090 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Although it is generally assumed that herbivores have more voluminous body cavities due to larger digestive tracts required for the digestion of plant fiber, this concept has not been addressed quantitatively. We estimated the volume of the torso in 126 terrestrial tetrapods (synapsids including basal synapsids and mammals, and diapsids including birds, non-avian dinosaurs and reptiles) classified as either herbivore or carnivore in digital models of mounted skeletons, using the convex hull method. The difference in relative torso volume between diet types was significant in mammals, where relative torso volumes of herbivores were about twice as large as that of carnivores, supporting the general hypothesis. However, this effect was not evident in diapsids. This may either reflect the difficulty to reliably reconstruct mounted skeletons in non-avian dinosaurs, or a fundamental difference in the bauplan of different groups of tetrapods, for example due to differences in respiratory anatomy. Evidently, the condition in mammals should not be automatically assumed in other, including more basal, tetrapod lineages. In both synapsids and diapsids, large animals showed a high degree of divergence with respect to the proportion of their convex hull directly supported by bone, with animals like elephants or Triceratops having a low proportion, and animals such as rhinoceros having a high proportion of bony support. The relevance of this difference remains to be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Clauss
- Clinic for Zoo Animals, Exotic Pets and Wildlife, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Irina Nurutdinova
- Computer Vision and Remote Sensing, Technical University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Carlo Meloro
- Research Centre in Evolutionary Anthropology and Palaeoecology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | | | - Duofang Jiang
- Computer Vision and Remote Sensing, Technical University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Johannes Koller
- Computer Vision and Remote Sensing, Technical University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bernd Herkner
- Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum, Frankfurt (Main), Germany
| | - P Martin Sander
- Steinmann Institute of Palaeontology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Olaf Hellwich
- Computer Vision and Remote Sensing, Technical University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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