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Dobrovolsky VN, Atiq OT, Heflich RH, Maisha M, McKinzie PB, Pearce MG, Robison TW. Erythrocyte PIG-A mutant frequencies in cancer patients receiving cisplatin. Cancer Med 2024; 13:e6895. [PMID: 38214136 PMCID: PMC10905239 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.6895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cisplatin is a primary chemotherapy choice for various solid tumors. DNA damage caused by cisplatin results in apoptosis of tumor cells. Cisplatin-induced DNA damage, however, may also result in mutations in normal cells and the initiation of secondary malignancies. In the current study, we have used the erythrocyte PIG-A assay to evaluate mutagenesis in non-tumor hematopoietic tissue of cancer patients receiving cisplatin chemotherapy. METHODS Twenty-one head and neck cancer patients undergoing treatment with cisplatin were monitored for the presence of PIG-A mutant total erythrocytes and the young erythrocytes, reticulocytes (RETs), in peripheral blood for up to five and a half months from the initiation of the anti-neoplastic chemotherapy. RESULTS PIG-A mutant frequency (MF) in RETs increased at least two-fold in 15 patients at some point of the monitoring, while the frequency of total mutant RBCs increased at least two-fold in 6 patients. A general trend for an increase in the frequency of mutant RETs and total mutant RBCs was observed in 19 and 18 patients, respectively. Only in one patient did both RET and total RBC PIG-A MFs did not increase at any time-point over the monitoring period. CONCLUSION Cisplatin chemotherapy induces moderate increases in the frequency of PIG-A mutant erythrocytes in head and neck cancer patients. Mutagenicity measured with the flow cytometric PIG-A assay may serve as a tool for predicting adverse outcomes of genotoxic antineoplastic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasily N. Dobrovolsky
- Division of Genetic and Molecular ToxicologyNational Center for Toxicological Research (NCTR), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)JeffersonArkansasUSA
| | - Omar T. Atiq
- University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS) Winthrop P. Rockefeller Cancer InstituteLittle RockArkansasUSA
| | - Robert H. Heflich
- Division of Genetic and Molecular ToxicologyNational Center for Toxicological Research (NCTR), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)JeffersonArkansasUSA
| | - Mackean Maisha
- Office of Scientific Coordination, NCTR, FDAJeffersonArkansasUSA
| | - Page B. McKinzie
- Division of Genetic and Molecular ToxicologyNational Center for Toxicological Research (NCTR), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)JeffersonArkansasUSA
| | - Mason G. Pearce
- Division of Genetic and Molecular ToxicologyNational Center for Toxicological Research (NCTR), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)JeffersonArkansasUSA
| | - Timothy W. Robison
- Office of New Drugs, OII, DPTII, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), US FDASilver SpringMarylandUSA
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2
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Judice SA, Sussman HE, Walker DM, O'Neill JP, Albertini RJ, Walker VE. Clonality, trafficking, and molecular alterations among Hprt mutant T lymphocytes isolated from control mice versus mice treated with N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2023; 64:432-457. [PMID: 37957787 PMCID: PMC10842105 DOI: 10.1002/em.22579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in T lymphocytes (T-cells) are informative quantitative markers for environmental mutagen exposures, but risk extrapolations from rodent models to humans also require an understanding of how T-cell development and proliferation kinetics impact mutagenic outcomes. Rodent studies have shown that patterns in chemical-induced mutations in the hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (Hprt) gene of T-cells differ between lymphoid organs. The current work was performed to obtain knowledge of the relationships between maturation events during T-cell development and changes in chemical-induced mutant frequencies over time in differing immune compartments of a mouse model. A novel reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction based method was developed to determine the specific T-cell receptor beta (Tcrb) gene mRNA expressed in mouse T-cell isolates, enabling sequence analysis of the PCR product that then identifies the specific hypervariable CDR3 junctional region of the expressed Tcrb gene for individual isolates. Characterization of spontaneous Hprt mutant isolates from the thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes of control mice for their Tcrb gene expression found evidence of in vivo clonal amplifications of Hprt mutants and their trafficking between tissues in the same animal. Concurrent analyses of Hprt mutations and Tcrb gene rearrangements in different lymphoid tissues of control versus N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-exposed mice permitted elucidation of the localization and timing of mutational events in T-cells, establishing that mutagenesis occurs primarily in the pre-rearrangement replicative period in pre-thymic/thymic populations. These findings demonstrate that chemical-induced mutagenic burden is determined by the combination of mutagenesis and T-cell clonal expansion, processes with roles in immune function and in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disease and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen A Judice
- Genetic Toxicology Laboratory, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA
- EnviroLogix, Portland, Maine, USA
| | - Hillary E Sussman
- School of Public Health, University at Albany - SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
- New York State Department of Health, Wadsworth Center, Albany, New York, USA
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, USA
| | - Dale M Walker
- Experimental Pathology Laboratories, Sterling, Virginia, USA
- The Burlington HC Research group, Inc., Jericho, Vermont, USA
| | - J Patrick O'Neill
- Genetic Toxicology Laboratory, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA
| | - Richard J Albertini
- Genetic Toxicology Laboratory, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA
| | - Vernon E Walker
- New York State Department of Health, Wadsworth Center, Albany, New York, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA
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3
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Platel A, Dusautoir R, Kervoaze G, Dourdin G, Gateau E, Talahari S, Huot L, Simar S, Ollivier A, Laine W, Kluza J, Gosset P, Garçon G, Anthérieu S, Guidice JML, Nesslany F. Comparison of the in vivo genotoxicity of electronic and conventional cigarettes aerosols after subacute, subchronic and chronic exposures. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 423:127246. [PMID: 34844363 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Tobacco smoking is classified as a human carcinogen. A wide variety of new products, in particular electronic cigarettes (e-cigs), have recently appeared on the market as an alternative to smoking. Although the in vitro toxicity of e-cigs is relatively well known, there is currently a lack of data on their long-term health effects. In this context, the aim of our study was to compare, on a mouse model and using a nose-only exposure system, the in vivo genotoxic and mutagenic potential of e-cig aerosols tested at two power settings (18 W and 30 W) and conventional cigarette (3R4F) smoke. The standard comet assay, micronucleus test and Pig-a gene mutation assay were performed after subacute (4 days), subchronic (3 months) and chronic (6 months) exposure. The generation of oxidative stress was also assessed by measuring the 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and by using the hOGG1-modified comet assay. Our results show that only the high-power e-cig and the 3R4F cigarette induced oxidative DNA damage in the lung and the liver of exposed mice. In return, no significant increase in chromosomal aberrations or gene mutations were noted whatever the type of product. This study demonstrates that e-cigs, at high-power setting, should be considered, contrary to popular belief, as hazardous products in terms of genotoxicity in mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Platel
- CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, ULR 4483-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé (IMPECS), Univ. Lille, Lille, France.
| | - Romain Dusautoir
- CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, ULR 4483-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé (IMPECS), Univ. Lille, Lille, France.
| | - Gwenola Kervoaze
- University of Lille, CNRS UMR9017, Inserm U1019, CHRU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, CIIL - Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, OpInfIELD, France.
| | - Gonzague Dourdin
- CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, ULR 4483-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé (IMPECS), Univ. Lille, Lille, France.
| | - Eulalie Gateau
- CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, ULR 4483-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé (IMPECS), Univ. Lille, Lille, France.
| | - Smaïl Talahari
- CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, ULR 4483-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé (IMPECS), Univ. Lille, Lille, France.
| | - Ludovic Huot
- CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, ULR 4483-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé (IMPECS), Univ. Lille, Lille, France.
| | - Sophie Simar
- CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, ULR 4483-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé (IMPECS), Univ. Lille, Lille, France.
| | - Anaïs Ollivier
- University of Lille, CNRS UMR9017, Inserm U1019, CHRU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, CIIL - Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, OpInfIELD, France.
| | - William Laine
- UMR 9020-UMR-S 1277-Canther-Cancer Heterogeneity, Plasticity and Resistance to Therapies, Institut de Recherche contre le Cancer de Lille, University Lille, CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France.
| | - Jérôme Kluza
- UMR 9020-UMR-S 1277-Canther-Cancer Heterogeneity, Plasticity and Resistance to Therapies, Institut de Recherche contre le Cancer de Lille, University Lille, CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France.
| | - Philippe Gosset
- University of Lille, CNRS UMR9017, Inserm U1019, CHRU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, CIIL - Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, OpInfIELD, France.
| | - Guillaume Garçon
- CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, ULR 4483-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé (IMPECS), Univ. Lille, Lille, France.
| | - Sébastien Anthérieu
- CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, ULR 4483-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé (IMPECS), Univ. Lille, Lille, France.
| | - Jean-Marc Lo Guidice
- CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, ULR 4483-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé (IMPECS), Univ. Lille, Lille, France.
| | - Fabrice Nesslany
- CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, ULR 4483-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé (IMPECS), Univ. Lille, Lille, France.
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Seo JE, Davis K, Malhi P, He X, Bryant M, Talpos J, Burks S, Mei N, Guo X. Genotoxicity evaluation using primary hepatocytes isolated from rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta). Toxicology 2021; 462:152936. [PMID: 34509578 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2021.152936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 09/04/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Non-human primates (NHPs) have played a vital role in fundamental, pre-clinical, and translational studies because of their high physiological and genetic similarity to humans. Here, we report a method to isolate primary hepatocytes from the livers of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) after in situ whole liver perfusion. Isolated primary macaque hepatocytes (PMHs) were treated with various compounds known to have different pathways of genotoxicity/carcinogenicity and the resulting DNA damage was evaluated using the high-throughput CometChip assay. The comet data were quantified using benchmark dose (BMD) modeling and the BMD50 values for treatments of PMHs were compared with those generated from primary human hepatocytes (PHHs) in our previous study (Seo et al. Arch Toxicol 2020, 2207-2224). The results showed that despite varying CYP450 enzyme activities, PMHs had the same sensitivity and specificity as PHHs in detecting four indirect-acting (i.e., requiring metabolic activation) and seven direct-acting genotoxicants/carcinogens, as well as five non-carcinogens that are negative or equivocal for genotoxicity in vivo. The BMD50 estimates and their confidence intervals revealed species differences for DNA damage potency, especially for direct-acting compounds. The present study provides a practical method for maximizing the use of animal tissues by isolating primary hepatocytes from NHPs. Our data support the use of PMHs as a reliable surrogate of PHHs for evaluating the genotoxic hazards of chemical substances for humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Eun Seo
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - Kelly Davis
- Toxicologic Pathology Associates, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - Pritpal Malhi
- Toxicologic Pathology Associates, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - Xiaobo He
- Office of Scientific Coordination, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - Matthew Bryant
- Office of Scientific Coordination, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - John Talpos
- Division of Neurotoxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - Susan Burks
- Division of Neurotoxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - Nan Mei
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA
| | - Xiaoqing Guo
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
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5
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No evidence for genotoxicity in mice due to exposure to intermediate-frequency magnetic fields used for wireless power-transfer systems. Mutat Res 2021; 863-864:503310. [PMID: 33678242 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2021.503310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Time varying magnetic fields (MFs) are used for the wireless power-transfer (WPT) technology. Especially, 85 kHz band MFs, which are included in the intermediate frequency (IF) band (300 Hz - 10 MHz), are commonly used WPT system for charging electric vehicles. Those applications of WPT technology have elicited public concern about health effects of IF-MF. However, existing data from health risk assessments are insufficient and additional data are needed. We assessed the genotoxic effects of IF-MF exposure on erythroid differentiation in mice. A high-intensity IF-MF mouse exposure system was constructed to induce an average whole-body electric field of 54.1 V/m. Blood samples were obtained from male mice before and after a 2-week IF-MF exposure (1 h/day, total: 10 h); X-irradiated mice were used as positive controls. We analyzed the blood samples with the micronucleus (MN) test and the Pig-a mutation assay. No significant differences were seen between IF-MF-exposed and sham-exposed mice in the frequencies of either MN or Pig-a mutations in mature erythrocytes and reticulocytes. IF-MF exposure did not induce genotoxicity in vivo under the study conditions (2.36× the basic restriction for occupational exposure, 22.9 V/m, in the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) guidelines). The absence of significant biological effects due to IF-MF exposure supports the practical application of this technology.
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Elhajouji A, Vaskova D, Downing R, Dertinger SD, Martus H. Induction ofin vivo Pig-agene mutation but not micronuclei by 5-(2-chloroethyl)-2ʹ-deoxyuridine, an antiviral pyrimidine nucleoside analogue. Mutagenesis 2018; 33:343-350. [DOI: 10.1093/mutage/gey029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Azeddine Elhajouji
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dagmara Vaskova
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rebecca Downing
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Hansjeorg Martus
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland
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7
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Multi-laboratory evaluation of 1,3-propane sultone, N -propyl- N -nitrosourea, and mitomycin C in the Pig-a mutation assay in vivo. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2018; 831:62-68. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2018.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Revised: 05/13/2018] [Accepted: 05/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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8
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Igl BW, Dertinger SD, Dobrovolsky VN, Raschke M, Sutter A, Vonk R. A statistical approach for analyzing data from the in vivo Pig-a gene mutation assay. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2018; 831:33-44. [PMID: 29875075 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2018.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Revised: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The in vivo Pig-a gene mutation assay serves to evaluate the genotoxic potential of chemicals. In the rat blood-based assay, the lack of CD59 on the surface of erythrocytes is quantified via fluorophore-labeled antibodies in conjunction with flow cytometric analysis to determine the frequency of Pig-a mutant phenotype cells. The assay has achieved regulatory relevance as it is suggested as an in vivo follow-up test for Ames mutagens in the recent ICH M7 [25] step 4 document. However, very little work exists regarding suitable statistical approaches for analyzing Pig-a data. In the current report, we present a statistical strategy based on a two factor model involving 'treatment' and 'time' incl. their interaction and a baseline covariate for log proportions to compare treatment and vehicle data per time point as well as in time. In doing so, multiple contrast tests allow us to discover time-related changes within and between treatment groups in addition to multiple treatment comparisons to a control group per single time point. We compare our proposed strategy with the results of classical Dunnett and Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney tests using two data sets describing the mode of action of Chlorambucil and Glycidyl methacrylate both analyzed in a 28-day treatment schedule.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Vasily N Dobrovolsky
- National Center for Toxicological Research/U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, USA
| | | | | | - Richardus Vonk
- Research and Clinical Sciences Statistics, Bayer AG, Berlin, Germany
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Besaratinia A, Zheng A, Bates SE, Tommasi S. Mutation Analysis in Cultured Cells of Transgenic Rodents. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E262. [PMID: 29337872 PMCID: PMC5796208 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19010262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
To comply with guiding principles for the ethical use of animals for experimental research, the field of mutation research has witnessed a shift of interest from large-scale in vivo animal experiments to small-sized in vitro studies. Mutation assays in cultured cells of transgenic rodents constitute, in many ways, viable alternatives to in vivo mutagenicity experiments in the corresponding animals. A variety of transgenic rodent cell culture models and mutation detection systems have been developed for mutagenicity testing of carcinogens. Of these, transgenic Big Blue® (Stratagene Corp., La Jolla, CA, USA, acquired by Agilent Technologies Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA, BioReliance/Sigma-Aldrich Corp., Darmstadt, Germany) mouse embryonic fibroblasts and the λ Select cII Mutation Detection System have been used by many research groups to investigate the mutagenic effects of a wide range of chemical and/or physical carcinogens. Here, we review techniques and principles involved in preparation and culturing of Big Blue® mouse embryonic fibroblasts, treatment in vitro with chemical/physical agent(s) of interest, determination of the cII mutant frequency by the λ Select cII assay and establishment of the mutation spectrum by DNA sequencing. We describe various approaches for data analysis and interpretation of the results. Furthermore, we highlight representative studies in which the Big Blue® mouse cell culture model and the λ Select cII assay have been used for mutagenicity testing of diverse carcinogens. We delineate the advantages of this approach and discuss its limitations, while underscoring auxiliary methods, where applicable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Besaratinia
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, M/C 9603, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
| | - Albert Zheng
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, M/C 9603, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
| | - Steven E Bates
- Department of Cancer Biology, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA.
| | - Stella Tommasi
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, M/C 9603, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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Avlasevich SL, Labash C, Torous DK, Bemis JC, MacGregor JT, Dertinger SD. In vivo pig-a and micronucleus study of the prototypical aneugen vinblastine sulfate. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2018; 59:30-37. [PMID: 28833575 PMCID: PMC5773054 DOI: 10.1002/em.22122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/15/2017] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The Pig-a assay is being used in regulatory studies to evaluate the potential of agents to induce somatic cell gene mutations and an OECD test guideline is under development. A working group involved with establishing the guideline recently noted that representative aneugenic agents had not been evaluated, and to help fill this data gap Pig-a mutant phenotype and micronucleated reticulocyte frequencies were measured in an integrated study design to assess the mutagenic and cytogenetic damage responses to vinblastine sulfate exposure. Male Sprague Dawley rats were treated for twenty-eight consecutive days with vinblastine dose levels from 0.0156 to 0.125 mg/kg/day. Micronucleated reticulocyte frequencies in peripheral blood were determined at Days 4 and 29, and mutant cell frequencies were determined at Days -4, 15, 29, and 46. Vinblastine affected reticulocyte frequencies, with reductions noted during the treatment phase and increases observed following cessation of treatment. Micronucleated reticulocyte frequencies were significantly elevated at Day 4 in the high dose group. Although a statistically significant increase in mutant reticulocyte frequencies were found for one dose group at a single time point (Day 46), it was not deemed biologically relevant because there was no analogous finding in mutant RBCs, it occurred at the lowest dose tested, and only 1 rat exceeded an upper bound tolerance interval established with historical negative control rats. Therefore, whereas micronucleus induction reflects vinblastine's well-established aneugenic effect on hematopoietic cells, the lack of a Pig-a response indicates that this tubulin-binding agent does not cause appreciable mutagenicity in this same cell type. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 59:30-37, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Graupner A, Eide DM, Brede DA, Ellender M, Lindbo Hansen E, Oughton DH, Bouffler SD, Brunborg G, Olsen AK. Genotoxic effects of high dose rate X-ray and low dose rate gamma radiation in Apc Min/+ mice. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2017; 58:560-569. [PMID: 28856770 PMCID: PMC5656900 DOI: 10.1002/em.22121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Revised: 07/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Risk estimates for radiation-induced cancer in humans are based on epidemiological data largely drawn from the Japanese atomic bomb survivor studies, which received an acute high dose rate (HDR) ionising radiation. Limited knowledge exists about the effects of chronic low dose rate (LDR) exposure, particularly with respect to the application of the dose and dose rate effectiveness factor. As part of a study to investigate the development of colon cancer following chronic LDR vs. acute HDR radiation, this study presents the results of genotoxic effects in blood of exposed mice. CBAB6 F1 Apc+/+ (wild type) and ApcMin/+ mice were chronically exposed to estimated whole body absorbed doses of 1.7 or 3.2 Gy 60 Co-γ-rays at a LDR (2.2 mGy h-1 ) or acutely exposed to 2.6 Gy HDR X-rays (1.3 Gy min-1 ). Genotoxic endpoints assessed in blood included chromosomal damage (flow cytometry based micronuclei (MN) assay), mutation analyses (Pig-a gene mutation assay), and levels of DNA lesions (Comet assay, single-strand breaks (ssb), alkali labile sites (als), oxidized DNA bases). Ionising radiation (ca. 3 Gy) induced genotoxic effects dependent on the dose rate. Chromosomal aberrations (MN assay) increased 3- and 10-fold after chronic LDR and acute HDR, respectively. Phenotypic mutation frequencies as well as DNA lesions (ssb/als) were modulated after acute HDR but not after chronic LDR. The ApcMin/+ genotype did not influence the outcome in any of the investigated endpoints. The results herein will add to the scant data available on genotoxic effects following chronic LDR of ionising radiation. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 58:560-569, 2017. © 2017 The Authors Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Environmental Mutagen Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Graupner
- Department of Molecular BiologyNorwegian Institute of Public HealthOslo0403Norway
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD)Ås 1432Norway
| | - Dag M. Eide
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD)Ås 1432Norway
- Department of Toxicology and Risk AssessmentNorwegian Institute of Public HealthOslo0403Norway
| | - Dag A. Brede
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD)Ås 1432Norway
- Department of Environmental SciencesNorwegian University of Life SciencesÅs 1432Norway
| | - Michele Ellender
- Radiation Effects DepartmentCentre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health EnglandChiltonDidcotOX11 0RQEngland
| | - Elisabeth Lindbo Hansen
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD)Ås 1432Norway
- Department of ResearchNorwegian Radiation Protection AuthorityØsterås1361Norway
| | - Deborah H. Oughton
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD)Ås 1432Norway
- Department of Environmental SciencesNorwegian University of Life SciencesÅs 1432Norway
| | - Simon D. Bouffler
- Radiation Effects DepartmentCentre for Radiation, Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Public Health EnglandChiltonDidcotOX11 0RQEngland
| | - Gunnar Brunborg
- Department of Molecular BiologyNorwegian Institute of Public HealthOslo0403Norway
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD)Ås 1432Norway
| | - Ann Karin Olsen
- Department of Molecular BiologyNorwegian Institute of Public HealthOslo0403Norway
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD)Ås 1432Norway
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12
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No cancer predisposition or increased spontaneous mutation frequencies in NEIL DNA glycosylases-deficient mice. Sci Rep 2017; 7:4384. [PMID: 28663564 PMCID: PMC5491499 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-04472-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Base excision repair (BER) is a major pathway for removal of DNA base lesions and maintenance of genomic stability, which is essential in cancer prevention. DNA glycosylases recognize and remove specific lesions in the first step of BER. The existence of a number of these enzymes with overlapping substrate specificities has been thought to be the reason why single knock-out models of individual DNA glycosylases are not cancer prone. In this work we have characterized DNA glycosylases NEIL1 and NEIL2 (Neil1−/−/Neil2−/−) double and NEIL1, NEIL2 and NEIL3 (Neil1−/−/Neil2−/−/Neil3−/−) triple knock-out mouse models. Unexpectedly, our results show that these mice are not prone to cancer and have no elevated mutation frequencies under normal physiological conditions. Moreover, telomere length is not affected and there was no accumulation of oxidative DNA damage compared to wild-type mice. These results strengthen the hypothesis that the NEIL enzymes are not simply back-up enzymes for each other but enzymes that have distinct functions beyond canonical repair.
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13
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Castel P, Carcopino X, Robert S, Bonetto R, Cowen D, Orsiere T. [The PIG-A gene as a new biomarker of mutagenesis: proof of concept and technical specifications]. Med Sci (Paris) 2017; 33:432-439. [PMID: 28497740 DOI: 10.1051/medsci/20173304014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene mutations are not directly detected by current genotoxicity assays and most of them need a cell culture step. The whole blood PIG-A assay consists in the detection of the mutation frequency within the PIG-A sentinel gene by identification of glycosyl-phosphatidyl-inositol (GPI-) deficient cells. PIG-A mutated/GPI-deficient cells can be detected by flow cytometry as they no longer express surface fluorescence for GPI-linked markers. The last researches have focused on cell enrichment techniques leading to increased throughput and sensitivity. The results of this new and promising biomarker of mutagenesis, performed in humans or rodents, are now available within 2 hours after blood collection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Castel
- Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d'Écologie (IMBE), équipe Biogénotoxicologie, Santé Humaine et Environnement, Aix-Marseille Université (AMU), CNRS, IRD, Avignon Université, Faculté de Médecine de Marseille, 27, boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Xavier Carcopino
- Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d'Écologie (IMBE), équipe Biogénotoxicologie, Santé Humaine et Environnement, Aix-Marseille Université (AMU), CNRS, IRD, Avignon Université, Faculté de Médecine de Marseille, 27, boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France - Département d'obstétrique et de gynécologie, Hôpital Nord, APHM, Aix-Marseille Université (AMU), Marseille, France
| | - Stéphane Robert
- Vascular Research Center of Marseille, Aix-Marseille Université (AMU), UMR Inserm 1076, Faculté de Pharmacie, Marseille, France
| | - Rémi Bonetto
- Département de Radiothérapie, Hôpital Nord, APHM, Aix-Marseille Université (AMU), Marseille, France
| | - Didier Cowen
- Département de Radiothérapie, Hôpital Nord, APHM, Aix-Marseille Université (AMU), Marseille, France
| | - Thierry Orsiere
- Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d'Écologie (IMBE), équipe Biogénotoxicologie, Santé Humaine et Environnement, Aix-Marseille Université (AMU), CNRS, IRD, Avignon Université, Faculté de Médecine de Marseille, 27, boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
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14
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Evaluation of a single-dose PIGRET assay for cisplatin in rats compared with the RBC Pig-a assay. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2016; 811:97-101. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2016.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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15
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Graupner A, Eide DM, Instanes C, Andersen JM, Brede DA, Dertinger SD, Lind OC, Brandt-Kjelsen A, Bjerke H, Salbu B, Oughton D, Brunborg G, Olsen AK. Gamma radiation at a human relevant low dose rate is genotoxic in mice. Sci Rep 2016; 6:32977. [PMID: 27596356 PMCID: PMC5011728 DOI: 10.1038/srep32977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Even today, 70 years after Hiroshima and accidents like in Chernobyl and Fukushima, we still have limited knowledge about the health effects of low dose rate (LDR) radiation. Despite their human relevance after occupational and accidental exposure, only few animal studies on the genotoxic effects of chronic LDR radiation have been performed. Selenium (Se) is involved in oxidative stress defence, protecting DNA and other biomolecules from reactive oxygen species (ROS). It is hypothesised that Se deficiency, as it occurs in several parts of the world, may aggravate harmful effects of ROS-inducing stressors such as ionising radiation. We performed a study in the newly established LDR-facility Figaro on the combined effects of Se deprivation and LDR γ exposure in DNA repair knockout mice (Ogg1−/−) and control animals (Ogg1+/−). Genotoxic effects were seen after continuous radiation (1.4 mGy/h) for 45 days. Chromosomal damage (micronucleus), phenotypic mutations (Pig-a gene mutation of RBCCD24−) and DNA lesions (single strand breaks/alkali labile sites) were significantly increased in blood cells of irradiated animals, covering three types of genotoxic activity. This study demonstrates that chronic LDR γ radiation is genotoxic in an exposure scenario realistic for humans, supporting the hypothesis that even LDR γ radiation may induce cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Graupner
- Department of Chemicals and Radiation, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo 0403, Norway.,Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway
| | - Dag M Eide
- Department of Chemicals and Radiation, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo 0403, Norway.,Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway
| | - Christine Instanes
- Department of Chemicals and Radiation, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo 0403, Norway.,Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway
| | - Jill M Andersen
- Department of Chemicals and Radiation, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo 0403, Norway.,Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway
| | - Dag A Brede
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway.,Department of Environmental Sciences (IMV), Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway
| | | | - Ole C Lind
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway.,Department of Environmental Sciences (IMV), Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway
| | - Anicke Brandt-Kjelsen
- Department of Environmental Sciences (IMV), Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway
| | - Hans Bjerke
- Department of Monitoring and Research, Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority, Østerås 1332, Norway
| | - Brit Salbu
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway.,Department of Environmental Sciences (IMV), Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway
| | - Deborah Oughton
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway.,Department of Environmental Sciences (IMV), Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway
| | - Gunnar Brunborg
- Department of Chemicals and Radiation, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo 0403, Norway.,Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway
| | - Ann K Olsen
- Department of Chemicals and Radiation, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo 0403, Norway.,Centre for Environmental Radioactivity (CoE CERAD), Ås 1432, Norway
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16
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Moderate malnutrition in rats induces somatic gene mutations. Mutat Res 2016; 789:26-32. [PMID: 26994962 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2016.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The relationship between malnutrition and genetic damage has been widely studied in human and animal models, leading to the observation that interactions between genotoxic exposure and micronutrient status appear to affect genomic stability. A new assay has been developed that uses the phosphatidylinositol glycan class A gene (Pig-a) as a reporter for measuring in vivo gene mutation. The Pig-a assay can be employed to evaluate mutant frequencies (MFs) in peripheral blood reticulocytes (RETs) and erythrocytes (RBCs) using flow cytometry. In the present study, we assessed the effects of malnutrition on mutagenic susceptibility by exposing undernourished (UN) and well-nourished (WN) rats to N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) and measuring Pig-a MFs. Two week-old UN and WN male Han-Wistar rats were treated daily with 0, 20, or 40mg/kg ENU for 3 consecutive days. Blood was collected from the tail vein one day before ENU treatment (Day-1) and after ENU administration on Days 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56 and 63. Pig-a MFs were measured in RETs and RBCs as the RET(CD59-) and RBC(CD59-) frequencies. In the vehicle control groups, the frequencies of mutant RETs and RBCs were significantly higher in UN rats compared with WN rats at all sampling times. The ENU treatments increased RET and RBC MFs starting at Day 7. Although ENU-induced Pig-a MFs were consistently lower in UN rats than in WN rats, these differences were not significant. To understand these responses, further studies should use other mutagens and nucleated surrogate cells and examine the types of mutations induced in UN and WN rats.
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17
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Roberts DJ, McKeon M, Xu Y, Stankowski LF. Comparison of integrated genotoxicity endpoints in rats after acute and subchronic oral doses of 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2016; 57:17-27. [PMID: 26407646 PMCID: PMC7362388 DOI: 10.1002/em.21981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
During interlaboratory validation trials for the Pig-a gene mutation assay we assessed the genotoxicity of 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (4NQO) across endpoints in multiple tissues: induction of Pig-a mutant red blood cells (RBCs) and reticulocytes (RETs); micronucleated RETs (MN RETs); and DNA damage in blood and liver via the alkaline Comet assay (%tail intensity [TI]). In a previous subchronic toxicity study with 28 daily doses, biologically meaningful increases were observed only for Pig-a mutant RBCs/RETs while marginal increases in the frequency of MN RET were observed, and other clastogenic endpoints were negative. Follow up acute studies were performed using the same cumulative doses (0, 35, 70, 105, and 140 mg/kg) administered in a bolus, or split over three equal daily doses, with samples collected up to 1 month after the last dose. Both of the acute dosing regimens produced similar results, in that endpoints were either positive or negative, regardless of 1 or 3 daily doses, but the three consecutive daily dose regimen yielded more potent responses in TI (in liver and blood) and Pig-a mutant frequencies. In these acute studies the same cumulative doses of 4NQO induced positive responses in clastogenic endpoints that were negative or inconclusive using a subchronic study design. Additionally, a positive control group using combination doses of cyclophosphamide and ethyl methanesulfonate was employed to assess assay validity and potentially identify a future positive control treatment for integrated genetic toxicity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Roberts
- Bristol-Myers Squibb, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
- Joint Graduate Program of Toxicology, Rutgers, NJ, USA
| | | | - Yong Xu
- BioReliance Corporation, Rockville, MD, USA
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18
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Gollapudi BB, Lynch AM, Heflich RH, Dertinger SD, Dobrovolsky VN, Froetschl R, Horibata K, Kenyon MO, Kimoto T, Lovell DP, Stankowski LF, White PA, Witt KL, Tanir JY. The in vivo Pig-a assay: A report of the International Workshop On Genotoxicity Testing (IWGT) Workgroup. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2015; 783:23-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2014.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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19
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Dertinger SD, Avlasevich SL, Torous DK, Bemis JC, Phonethepswath S, Labash C, Carlson K, Mereness J, Cottom J, Palis J, MacGregor JT. Persistence of cisplatin-induced mutagenicity in hematopoietic stem cells: implications for secondary cancer risk following chemotherapy. Toxicol Sci 2014; 140:307-14. [PMID: 24798381 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfu078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cisplatin is a cytostatic agent used in the treatment of many types of cancer, but its use is associated with increased incidences of secondary leukemia. We evaluated cisplatin's in vivo genotoxic potential by analyzing peripheral blood for Pig-a mutant phenotype erythrocytes and for chromosomal damage in the form of micronuclei. Mutant phenotype reticuloyte and erythrocyte frequencies, based on anti-CD59 antibody labeling and flow cytometric analysis, were determined in male Sprague Dawley rats treated for 28 consecutive days (days 1-28) with up to 0.4 mg cisplatin/kg/day, and sampled on days -4, 15, 29, and 56. Vehicle and highest dose groups were evaluated at additional time points post-treatment up to 6 months. Day 4 and 29 blood samples were also analyzed for micronucleated reticulocyte frequency using flow cytometry and anti-CD71-based labeling. Mutant phenotype reticulocytes were significantly elevated at doses ≥0.1 mg/kg/day, and mutant phenotype erythrocytes were elevated at doses ≥0.05 mg/kg/day. In the 0.4 mg/kg/day group, these effects persisted for the 6 month observation period. Cisplatin also induced a modest but statistically significant increase in micronucleus frequency at the highest dose tested. The prolonged persistence in the production of mutant erythrocytes following cisplatin exposure suggests that this drug mutates hematopoietic stem cells and that this damage may ultimately contribute to the increased incidence of secondary leukemias seen in patients cured of primary malignancies with platinum-based regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - James Palis
- Department of Pediatrics and Center for Pediatric Biomedical Research, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York
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20
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Kimoto T, Chikura S, Suzuki-Okada K, Kobayashi X, Itano Y, Miura D, Kasahara Y. The Rat Pig-a Mutation Assay in Single and 28 Day-repeated Dose Study of Cyclophosphamide: The PIGRET Assay Can Detect the In Vivo Mutagenicity Earlier than the RBC Pig-a Assay. Genes Environ 2014. [DOI: 10.3123/jemsge.2014.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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21
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Kimoto T, Horibata K, Chikura S, Hashimoto K, Itoh S, Sanada H, Muto S, Uno Y, Yamada M, Honma M. Interlaboratory trial of the rat Pig-a mutation assay using an erythroid marker HIS49 antibody. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2013; 755:126-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2013.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Revised: 06/09/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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22
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Bhalli JA, Ding W, Shaddock JG, Pearce MG, Dobrovolsky VN, Heflich RH. Evaluating the weak in vivo micronucleus response of a genotoxic carcinogen, Aristolochic acids. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2013; 753:82-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2013.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2012] [Revised: 03/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/03/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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