A carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance study of the 3'-terminus of 16S ribosomal RNA of Escherichia coli specifically labeled with carbon-13 in the methylgroups of the m6(2)Am6(2)A sequence

Insights into synthesis and function of KsgA/Dim1-dependent rRNA modifications in archaea

Ribosomes are intricate molecular machines ensuring proper protein synthesis in every cell. Ribosome biogenesis is a complex process which has been intensively analyzed in bacteria and eukaryotes. In contrast, our understanding of the in vivo archaeal ribosome biogenesis pathway remains less characterized. Here, we have analyzed the in vivo role of the almost universally conserved ribosomal RNA dimethyltransferase KsgA/Dim1 homolog in archaea. Our study reveals that KsgA/Dim1-dependent 16S rRNA dimethylation is dispensable for the cellular growth of phylogenetically distant archaea. However, proteomics and functional analyses suggest that archaeal KsgA/Dim1 and its rRNA modification activity (i) influence the expression of a subset of proteins and (ii) contribute to archaeal cellular fitness and adaptation. In addition, our study reveals an unexpected KsgA/Dim1-dependent variability of rRNA modifications within the archaeal phylum. Combining structure-based functional studies across evolutionary divergent organisms, we provide evidence on how rRNA structure sequence variability (re-)shapes the KsgA/Dim1-dependent rRNA modification status. Finally, our results suggest an uncoupling between the KsgA/Dim1-dependent rRNA modification completion and its release from the nascent small ribosomal subunit. Collectively, our study provides additional understandings into principles of molecular functional adaptation, and further evolutionary and mechanistic insights into an almost universally conserved step of ribosome synthesis.

The mammalian mitochondrial epitranscriptome

Correct expression of the mitochondrially-encoded genes is critical for the production of the components of the oxidative phosphorylation machinery. Post-transcriptional modifications of mitochondrial transcripts have been emerging as an important regulatory feature of mitochondrial gene expression. Here we review the current knowledge on how the mammalian mitochondrial epitranscriptome participates in regulating mitochondrial homeostasis. In particular, we focus on the latest breakthroughs made towards understanding the roles of the modified nucleotides in mitochondrially-encoded ribosomal and transfer RNAs, the enzymes responsible for introducing these modifications and on recent transcriptome-wide studies reporting modifications to mitochondrial messenger RNAs. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: mRNA modifications in gene expression control edited by Dr. Matthias Soller and Dr. Rupert Fray.

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Human mtDNA encodes 13 proteins and all the RNAs necessary for their expression

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Post-transcriptional modifications of RNA, the epitranscriptome, play a regulatory role in mitochondrial gene expression

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Several enzymes involved in the shaping of the mitochondrial epitranscriptome have recently been characterised.

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Our understanding of the extent and nature of mtRNA modifications is rapidly expanding.

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Recent transcriptome-wide studies suggest modifications in mitochondrial mRNAs

Speculative strategies for new antibacterials: all roads should not lead to Rome

In concert with improvements in personal hygiene and public sanitation, the discovery and development of antibiotics during the latter half of the last century has reduced substantially the morbidity and mortality associated with bacterial diseases. However, the past decade has witnessed a sharp reduction in interest in antibacterial drug development by 'big pharma', compounded by a decline in the breadth of chemical space for new antibacterial molecules and a failure to exploit the plethora of cellular processes potentially targetable by novel classes of antibacterial molecules. This review focuses on some strategies relating to antibacterial chemotherapy, paths less trodden, which the author considers worthy of further exploration.

The antibiotic kasugamycin mimics mRNA nucleotides to destabilize tRNA binding and inhibit canonical translation initiation

Kasugamycin (Ksg) specifically inhibits translation initiation of canonical but not of leaderless messenger RNAs. Ksg inhibition is thought to occur by direct competition with initiator transfer RNA. The 3.35-A structure of Ksg bound to the 30S ribosomal subunit presented here provides a structural description of two Ksg-binding sites as well as a basis for understanding Ksg resistance. Notably, neither binding position overlaps with P-site tRNA; instead, Ksg mimics codon nucleotides at the P and E sites by binding within the path of the mRNA. Coupled with biochemical experiments, our results suggest that Ksg indirectly inhibits P-site tRNA binding through perturbation of the mRNA-tRNA codon-anticodon interaction during 30S canonical initiation. In contrast, for 70S-type initiation on leaderless mRNA, the overlap between mRNA and Ksg is reduced and the binding of tRNA is further stabilized by the presence of the 50S subunit, minimizing Ksg efficacy.

Characterization of RNA hairpin loop stability

Fifteen RNA hairpins that share the same stem sequence and have homopolymer loops of A, C and U residues which vary in length from three to nine nucleotides were synthesized and their thermal stabilities determined. Tm varies as a function of loop size but is almost independent of loop composition. Loops of four or five nucleotides are found to be the most stable loop size. This is consistent with the observation that four-membered loops are the most prevalent loop size in 16S-like RNAs. The contribution of each loop to hairpin stability was calculated by subtracting the known contribution of the helical stem. These data should be useful for predicting the stability of other hairpins.

The 3' terminal colicin fragment of Escherichia coli 16S ribosomal RNA. Conformational details revealed by enzymic and chemical probing

The conformation of the colicin fragment of E. coli 16S rRNA was probed with various nucleases and with the adenosine-specific reagent diethylpyrocarbonate (DEP). The results confirm the presence of a stable central hairpin in the colicin fragment and a weaker additional secondary structure involving the regions 5' and 3' to this hairpin. By monitoring DEP accessibility at various stages of heat-denaturation sequential unfolding of individual base pairs was followed. In agreement with previous results it could be shown that dimethylation of the two adjacent adenosines in the hairpin loop (a feature in virtually all ribosomes) leads to a destabilization of the hairpin helix. Accessibilities of G residues, involved in the weaker additional secondary structure is anomalous. One G residue is sensitive to the single strand specific RNase T1 and insensitive to DEP, while the situation is reversed for the adjoining G residue. The strong reaction of the latter G-residue with DEP is unusual and indicates a very special conformation.

Circular dichroism and 500-MHz proton magnetic resonance studies of the interaction of Escherichia coli translational initiation factor 3 protein with the 16S ribosomal RNA 3' cloacin fragment

The RNA helix destabilizing properties of Escherichia coli initiation factor 3 protein (IF3), and its affinity for an evolutionarily conserved sequence at the 3' end of 16S rRNA, led us to examine the details of the protein-nucleic acid interactions upon IF3 binding to the 49-nucleotide 3'-terminal cloacin DF13 fragment of 16S rRNA by studying the circular dichroism (CD) and proton magnetic resonance spectra of the RNA, the protein, and their complex. In a physiological tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane buffer, where the interaction is primarily nonionic and sequence specific, addition of IF3 decreases the RNA 268-nm CD peak hyperbolically by 19% to an end point of about one IF3 per RNA strand. The titration curve is best fit by an association constant of (1.80 +/- 0.05) X 10(7) M-1, within the range estimated by a nuclease mapping study of the same system [Wickstrom, E. (1983) Nucleic Acids Res. 11, 2035-2052]. In a low-salt phosphate buffer without Mg2+, where the interaction is primarily ionic and nonspecific, titration with IF3 decreases the peak CD sigmoidally by 35% to an end point of two IF3 per strand. The titration curve is best fit by an intrinsic association constant of (1.7 +/- 0.7) X 10(6) M-1 for each IF3 and a cooperativity constant of 33 +/- 6. In a physiological phosphate buffer lacking Mg2+, the dispersion of aromatic proton magnetic resonance peaks and upfield-shifted methyl proton resonances indicates a high degree of secondary and tertiary structure in the protein. In an equimolar mixture of IF3 and RNA cloacin fragment, several changes in identifiable IF3 and RNA resonances are observed.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Characterization of a collection of deletion mutants at the 3'-end of 16S ribosomal RNA of Escherichia coli

Deletions were constructed in plasmid pKK3535 in the coding region for the 3'-end of E. coli 16S rRNA. The plasmid was cleaved with restriction endonuclease Hae2 under conditions favoring the production of single cut linear plasmid DNA and deletions were produced by digestion with exonuclease Bal31. Seven different deletions were isolated ranging in size from 90 to about 200 base pairs. Transcription of ribosomal DNA, processing of ribosomal RNA and incorporation of mutant rRNA into mutant particles was studied in UV-sensitive cells using a modified maxicell labeling procedure. The different mutants were missing defined features in the secondary structure of 16S rRNA and were characterized according to their stability, ability to be processed, sensitivity to colicin E3, and ability to bind ribosomal protein S1 and to interact with 50S subunits. These analyses show that the small stem and loop structure at positions 1350 to 1372 is necessary for the stability of rRNA. The deletion of the long terminal stem structure (1409-1491) in all mutant rRNAs does not block processing of the mutant rRNAs or S1 binding, although processing of the mutant rRNAs or S1 binding, although it does prevent the association of particles containing the mutant rRNA with 50S subunits.

Phylogeny of the conserved 3' terminal structure of the RNA of small ribosomal subunits

The strongest conserved part of the RNA of small ribosomal subunits is probably located near the 3' end. This paper reviews the primary and secondary structures of some 40 sequenced 3' termini and tries to classify these structures according to common features and differences. The regions under consideration contain at the 5' side an almost universal, supposedly single-stranded stretch of nucleotides with the sequence--AAGUCGUAACAAGGU--. This is followed by a stem-loop structure. The stem always contains 9 basepairs (including U-G pairs) and no mismatches or bulged nucleotides. The loop of the hairpin is either (m2)GGm62Am62A (bacteria, chloroplasts and mitochondria) or UGm62Am62A (cytoplasm). The hairpin is, in most cases, followed at the 3' side by--GGAUCA--. Next to it bacteria and chloroplasts contain the so-called "Shine and Dalgarno" sequence --CCUCC--. The stem region of the hairpin contains a conserved A-U U-G junction. The two basepairs between this junction and the loop are either of type 1 (G-C G-C) or type 2 (C-G C-G). Classification according to type links certain bacteria with mitochondria of yeast and plants and others with chloroplasts and with animal mitochondria.

High-resolution proton magnetic resonance studies of the 3'-terminal colicin fragment of 16 S ribosomal RNA from Escherichia coli. Assignment of iminoproton resonances by nuclear Overhauser effect experiments and the influence of adenine dimethylation on the hairpin conformation

The "colicin" fragments comprising the 49 3'-terminal nucleotides of 16 S ribosomal RNA have been isolated from wild-type Escherichia coli and from a kasugamycin-resistant mutant that lacks methylation of two geminal adenine residues. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (n.m.r.) spectra (500 MHz) were recorded at various temperatures. The low-field resonances arising from the hydrogen-bonded iminoprotons of paired bases were assigned using the nuclear Overhauser effect (n.o.e.). Crucial to the interpretation of the spectra are the resonances that originate from the two hydrogen-bonded iminoprotons of a U X G basepair. Combined with temperature-jump relaxation kinetics experiments the n.o.e.s lead to the conclusion that a conserved A X U/U X G junction in the hairpin is a thermolabile dislocation in the helix. The n.m.r. spectra of the wild-type and mutant fragment are only different with respect to the iminoproton resonances of the two base-pairs adjoining the hairpin loop. The spectra recorded at various temperatures tend to indicate that dimethylation of the adenosines labilizes these base-pairs, but no definitive conclusions are drawn. The results confirm our previous views that dimethylation of the adenosine residues affects the conformation of the hairpin loop.

The conformation of a conserved stem-loop structure in ribosomal RNA

The RNA of small ribosomal subunits contains a conserved stem-loop structure near the 3' end. Characteristics for the hairpins are: (a) a nine-basepairs stem: (b) a conserved A-UU-G junction in the stem: (c) a conserved sequence Gm6(2)AM6(2)A sequence in the loop (except yeast mitochondria and mutants from bacteria). We are using UV-optics, micro-calorimetry and 500 MHz-NMR to investigate fragments of about 50 nucleotides cleaved from the 3' ends of small ribosomal subunit RNA's by bacteriocins. Our preliminary conclusions are: (1) Dimethylation of the adenines in the loop destabilizes the hairpin because of an increased stacking; (2) melting of the hairpin starts at the ends as well as in the middle at the A-UU-G junction; (3) basepair substitutions have an unexpectedly large effect on thermal stability.

Structure, kinetics and thermodynamics of DNA hairpin fragments in solution

The hairpin-to-coil equilibrium of the hexadecadeoxynucleotide d(ATCCTATTTTTAGGAT) was extensively studied by means of NMR, T-jump and UV. The thermodynamic and kinetic parameters for this equilibrium were determined, yielding a consistent picture of the dynamical behavior of this hairpin structure, which is shown to be a clear example of a situation in which the linebroadening of the imino proton resonances is not determined by the lifetime of the double helix. A comparative study of the homologous hairpins in which the size of the loop was elongated from 4 to 7 thymidine residues shows a monotonous decrease in Tm for the hairpin-to-coil transitions. This finding is in contrast with the view that the stability of hairpins reaches a maximum with a loop size of 6-7 residues. The NMR results indicate that the accessibility of the thymine bases in the loop towards solvent molecules or complementary nucleotides greatly depends on the size of the loop.

Nuclease mapping of the secondary structure of the 49-nucleotide 3' terminal cloacin fragment of Escherichia coli 16s RNA and its interactions with initiation factor 3

Escherichia coli translational initiation factor 3 (IF3) may be crosslinked to the 3' end of 16S RNA in 30S ribosomal subunits. In order to determine the sequence to which IF3 may bind in vivo, samples of 5'-32P labelled 3' terminal 49-nucleotide fragment of 16S RNA were incubated 5 min. at 37 degrees in 40 mM Tris-HOAc, pH 7.4, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM Mg (OAc)2, 1 mM ZnSO4, with or without IF3, then reacted a further 5 min with nuclease S1, RNase T1, or RNase A. Base pairing between the 5' and 3' legs of the fragment occurs in the absence of IF3, but is disrupted by IF3 binding. IF3 appears to protect some residues near the 5' end of the fragment (U1495, A1499, A1500, A1502, and A1503) from nuclease S1, and potentiates S1 attack on others (G1494, G1497, C1501, G1504, G1505, U1506, G1517, G1529, G1530, and C1533). A series of equimolar reactions at increasing dilution imply an association constant range of 1.4-7.0 X 10(7) M-1.