A dicistronic construct allows easy detection of human CFTR expression from YAC DNA in human cells

Regulated multicistronic expression technology for mammalian metabolic engineering

Contemporary basic research is rapidly revealing increasingly complex molecular regulatory networks which are often interconnected via key signal integrators. These connections among regulatory and catalytic networks often frustrate bioengineers as promising metabolic engineering strategies are bypassed by compensatory metabolic responses or cause unexpected, undesired outcomes such as apoptosis, product protein degradation or inappropriate post- translational modification. Therefore, for metabolic engineering to achieve greater success in mammalian cell culture processes and to become important for future applications such as gene therapy and tissue engineering, this technology must be enhanced to allow simultaneous, in cases conditional, reshaping of metabolic pathways to access difficult-to-attain cell states. Recent advances in this new territory of multigene metabolic engineering are intimately linked to the development of multicistronic expression technology which allows the simultaneous, and in some cases, regulated expression of several genes in mammalian cells. Here we review recent achievements in multicistronic expression technology in view of multigene metabolic engineering.

Potential therapeutic applications of recombinant, invasive E. coli

An invasive Escherichia coli expressing the inv gene from Yersinia pseudotuberculosis was used as a vector for protein delivery to mammalian epithelial cells. Upon incubation with beta1-integrin-expressing mammalian cells, the bacteria are internalized, allowing bacteria-encoded proteins to function from within the mammalian cell. These bacteria are eventually processed in the host phagosome where they are destroyed. Expression of listeriolysin O from Listeria monocytogenes in the bacterium and its subsequent release into the phagosome triggers the breakdown of the membrane, allowing the release of the bacterial content into the cytosol of host cells. Using this vector, we demonstrate delivery of a gene and intact, functional proteins into mammalian cells in which beta1-integrin is expressed and accessible. At a ratio of bacteria/mammalian cells compatible with the survival of the mammalian cells, protein delivery can be observed in the entire cell population in vitro, while gene transfer is far less efficient. Protein delivery can also be achieved in vivo in mouse tumour models and can be detected at least 96 h after inoculation. Functional, natural E. coli proteins are delivered in the process and can provide therapeutic benefit in vivo, when associated with prodrugs. This therapeutic effect is associated with infiltration of neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages and to a lesser extent dendritic cells in the tumour mass.

Functional human CFTR produced by a stable minichromosome

Artificial chromosomes have been claimed to be the ideal vector for gene therapy, but their use has been hampered by an inability to produce stable and well designed molecules. We have used a structurally defined minichromosome to clone the human cystic fybrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) locus. To guarantee the presence of the proper regulatory elements, we used the 320 kb yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) 37AB12 with the intact CFTR gene and upstream sequences. The resulting minichromosome was analyzed for the presence of the entire CFTR gene and for its functional activity by molecular and functional methods. We have identified clones showing the presence of both the transcript and the CFTR protein. Moreover, in the same clones, a chloride secretory response to cAMP was detected. Mitotic and molecular stability after prolonged growth without selection demonstrated that the constructs were stable. This is the first example of a structurally known minichromosome made to contain an active therapeutic gene.

Size matters: use of YACs, BACs and PACs in transgenic animals

In 1993, several groups, working independently, reported the successful generation of transgenic mice with yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) using standard techniques. The transfer of these large fragments of cloned genomic DNA correlated with optimal expression levels of the transgenes, irrespective of their location in the host genome. Thereafter, other groups confirmed the advantages of YAC transgenesis and position-independent and copy number-dependent transgene expression were demonstrated in most cases. The transfer of YACs to the germ line of mice has become popular in many transgenic facilities to guarantee faithful expression of transgenes. This technique was rapidly exported to livestock and soon transgenic rabbits, pigs and other mammals were produced with YACs. Transgenic animals were also produced with bacterial or P1-derived artificial chromosomes (BACs/PACs) with similar success. The use of YACs, BACs and PACs in transgenesis has allowed the discovery of new genes by complementation of mutations, the identification of key regulatory sequences within genomic loci that are crucial for the proper expression of genes and the design of improved animal models of human genetic diseases. Transgenesis with artificial chromosomes has proven useful in a variety of biological, medical and biotechnological applications and is considered a major breakthrough in the generation of transgenic animals. In this report, we will review the recent history of YAC/BAC/PAC-transgenic animals indicating their benefits and the potential problems associated with them. In this new era of genomics, the generation and analysis of transgenic animals carrying artificial chromosome-type transgenes will be fundamental to functionally identify and understand the role of new genes, included within large pieces of genomes, by direct complementation of mutations or by observation of their phenotypic consequences.

Internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs): reality and use

IRESs are known to recruit ribosomes directly, without a previous scanning of untranslated region of mRNA by the ribosomes. IRESs have been found in a number of viral and cellular mRNAs. Experimentally, IRESs are commonly used to direct the expression of the second cistrons of bicistronic mRNAs. The mechanism of action of IRESs is not fully understood and a certain number of laboratories were not successful in using them in a reliable manner. Three observations done in our laboratory suggested that IRESs might not work as functionally as it was generally believed. Stem loops added before IRESs inhibited mRNA translation. When added into bicistronic mRNAs, IRESs initiated translation of the second cistrons efficiently only when the intercistronic region contained about 80 nucleotides, and they did not work any more effectively with intercistronic regions containing at least 300-400 nucleotides. Conversely, IRESs inserted at any position into the coding region of a cistron interrupted its translation and initiated translation of the following cistron. The first two data are hardly compatible with the idea that IRESs are able to recruit ribosomes without using the classical scanning mechanism. IRESs are highly structured and cannot be scanned by the 40S ribosomal subunit. We suggest that IRESs are short-circuited and are essentially potent stimulators favoring translation in particular physiological situations.