A second site specific endonuclease from Thermus thermophilus 111, Tth111II

The third restriction-modification system from Thermus aquaticus YT-1: solving the riddle of two TaqII specificities

Two restriction-modification systems have been previously discovered in Thermus aquaticus YT-1. TaqI is a 263-amino acid (aa) Type IIP restriction enzyme that recognizes and cleaves within the symmetric sequence 5'-TCGA-3'. TaqII, in contrast, is a 1105-aa Type IIC restriction-and-modification enzyme, one of a family of Thermus homologs. TaqII was originally reported to recognize two different asymmetric sequences: 5'-GACCGA-3' and 5'-CACCCA-3'. We previously cloned the taqIIRM gene, purified the recombinant protein from Escherichia coli, and showed that TaqII recognizes the 5'-GACCGA-3' sequence only. Here, we report the discovery, isolation, and characterization of TaqIII, the third R-M system from T. aquaticus YT-1. TaqIII is a 1101-aa Type IIC/IIL enzyme and recognizes the 5'-CACCCA-3' sequence previously attributed to TaqII. The cleavage site is 11/9 nucleotides downstream of the A residue. The enzyme exhibits striking biochemical similarity to TaqII. The 93% identity between their aa sequences suggests that they have a common evolutionary origin. The genes are located on two separate plasmids, and are probably paralogs or pseudoparalogs. Putative positions and aa that specify DNA recognition were identified and recognition motifs for 6 uncharacterized Thermus-family enzymes were predicted.

Engineering TaqII bifunctional endonuclease DNA recognition fidelity: the effect of a single amino acid substitution within the methyltransferase catalytic site

The aim of this study was to improve a useful molecular tool-TaqII restriction endonuclease-methyltransferase-by rational protein engineering, as well as to show an application of our novel method of restriction endonuclease activity modulation through a single amino acid change in the NPPY motif of methyltransferase. An amino acid change was introduced using site-directed mutagenesis into the taqIIRM gene. The mutated gene was expressed in Escherichia coli. The protein variant was purified and characterized. Previously, we described a TspGWI variant with an amino acid change in the methyltransferase motif IV. Here, we investigate a complex, pleiotropic effect of an analogous amino acid change on its homologue-TaqII. The methyltransferase activity is reduced, but not abolished, while TaqII restriction endonuclease can be reactivated by sinefungin, with an increased DNA recognition fidelity. The general method for engineering of the IIS/IIC/IIG restriction endonuclease activity/fidelity is developed along with the generation of an improved TaqII enzyme for biotechnological applications. A successful application of our novel strategy for restriction endonuclease activity/fidelity alteration, based on bioinformatics analyses, mutagenesis and the use of cofactor-analogue activity modulation, is presented.

Two-stage gene assembly/cloning of a member of the TspDTI subfamily of bifunctional restriction endonucleases, TthHB27I

The Thermus sp. family of bifunctional type IIS/IIG/IIC restriction endonucleases (REase)-methyltransferases (MTase) comprises thermo-stable TaqII, TspGWI, TspDTI, TsoI, Tth111II/TthHB27I enzymes as well as a number of putative enzymes/open reading frames (ORFs). All of the family members share properties including a large protein size (ca. 120kDa), amino acid (aa) sequence homologies, enzymatic activity modulation by S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), recognition of similar asymmetric cognate DNA sites and cleavage at a distance of 11/9 nt. Analysis of the enzyme aa sequences and domain/motif organisation led to further Thermus sp. family division into the TspDTI and TspGWI subfamilies. The latter exhibits an unprecedented phenomenon of DNA recognition change upon substitution of SAM by its analogue, sinefungin (SIN), towards a very frequent DNA cleavage. We report cloning in Escherichia coli (E. coli), using a two-stage procedure and a putative tthHB27IRM gene, detected by bioinformatics analysis of the Thermus thermophilus HB27 (T. thermophilus) genome. The functionality of a 3366 base pair (bp)-/1121 aa-long, high GC content ORF was validated experimentally through the expression in E. coli. Protein features corroborated with the reclassification of TthHB27I into the TspDTI subfamily, which manifested in terms of aa-sequence/motif homologies and insensitivity to SIN-induced specificity shift. However, both SAM and SIN stimulated the REase DNA cleavage activity by at least 16-32 times; the highest was observed for the Thermus sp. family. The availability of TthHB27I and the need to include SAM or SIN in the reaction in order to convert the enzyme from "hibernation" status to efficient DNA cleavage is of practical significance in molecular biotechnology, extending the palette of available REase specificities.

A new prototype IIS/IIC/IIG endonuclease-methyltransferase TsoI from the thermophile Thermus scotoductus, recognising 5'-TARCCA(N11/9)-3' sequences

The Thermus sp. family of IIS/IIG/IIC enzymes includes the thermostable, bifunctional, fused restriction endonuclease (REase)-methyltransferases (MTase): TaqII, Tth111II/TthHB27I, TspGWI, TspDTI and TsoI. The enzymes are large proteins (approximately 120kDa), their enzymatic activities are affected by S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), they recognise similar asymmetric cognate sites and cleave at a distance of 11/9 nucleotides (nt). The enzymes exhibit similarities of their amino acid (aa) sequences and DNA catalytic motifs. Thermus sp. enzymes are an example of functional aa sequence homologies among REases recognising different, yet related DNA sequences. The family consists of TspGWI- and TspDTI-subfamilies. TsoI appears to be a non-identical 'triplet', related to TspDTI and Tth111II/TthHB27I. The discovery of TsoI, purified from Thermus scotoductus, is described. This prototype, displaying a novel specificity, which was determined by: (i) cleavage of a reference plasmid and bacteriophage DNA, (ii) cleavage of custom PCR DNA substrates, (iii) run-off sequencing of cleavage products and (iv) shotgun cloning and sequencing of bacteriophage lambda (λ) DNA digested with TsoI. The enzyme recognises a degenerated 5'-TARCCA-3' sequence, whereas DNA strands are cut 11/9 nt downstream. The discovery of the TsoI prototype is of practical importance in biotechnology, as it extends the palette of cleavage specificities for gene cloning.

Characterization of cleavage intermediate and star sites of RM.Tth111II

Tth111II is a thermostable Type IIGS restriction enzyme that recognizes DNA sites CAARCA (R = A or G) and cleaves downstream at N11/N9. Here, the tth111IIRM gene was cloned and expressed in E. coli, and Tth111II was purified. The purified enzyme contains internally-bound S-adenosylmethionine (SAM). When the internal SAM was removed, the endonuclease activity was stimulated by adding SAM or its analog sinefungin. The cleavage intermediate is mostly top-strand nicked DNA on a single-site plasmid. Addition of duplex oligos with a cognate site stimulates cleavage activity of the one-site substrate. Tth111II cleaves a two-site plasmid DNA with equal efficiency regardless of site orientation. We propose the top-strand nicking is carried out by a Tth111II monomer and bottom-strand cleavage is carried out by a transient dimer. Tth111II methylates cleavage product-like duplex oligos CAAACAN9, but the modification rate is estimated to be much slower than the top-strand nicking rate. We cloned and sequenced a number of Tth111II star sites which are 1-bp different from the cognate sites. A biochemical pathway is proposed for the restriction and methylation activities of Tth111II.

Cofactor analogue-induced chemical reactivation of endonuclease activity in a DNA cleavage/methylation deficient TspGWI N₄₇₃A variant in the NPPY motif

We reported previously that TspGWI, a prototype enzyme of a new Thermus sp. family of restriction endonucleases-methyltransferases (REases-MTases), undergoes the novel phenomenon of sinefungin (SIN)-caused specificity transition. Here we investigated mutant TspGWI N₄₇₃A, containing a single amino acid (aa) substitution in the NPPY motif of the MTase. Even though the aa substitution is located within the MTase polypeptide segment, DNA cleavage and modification are almost completely abolished, indicating that the REase and MTase are intertwined. Remarkably, the TspGWI N₄₇₃A REase functionality can be completely reconstituted by the addition of SIN. We hypothesize that SIN binds specifically to the enzyme and restores the DNA cleavage-competent protein tertiary structure. This indicates the significant role of allosteric effectors in DNA cleavage in Thermus sp. enzymes. This is the first case of REase mutation suppression by an S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) cofactor analogue. Moreover, the TspGWI N₄₇₃A clone strongly affects E. coli division control, acting as a ‘selfish gene’. The mutant lacks the competing MTase activity and therefore might be useful for applications in DNA manipulation. Here we present a case study of a novel strategy for REase activity/specificity alteration by a single aa substitution, based on the bioinformatic analysis of active motif locations, combining (a) aa sequence engineering (b) the alteration of protein enzymatic properties, and (c) the use of cofactor–analogue cleavage reconstitution and stimulation.

Three-stage biochemical selection: cloning of prototype class IIS/IIC/IIG restriction endonuclease-methyltransferase TsoI from the thermophile Thermus scotoductus

BACKGROUND

In continuing our research into the new family of bifunctional restriction endonucleases (REases), we describe the cloning of the tsoIRM gene. Currently, the family includes six thermostable enzymes: TaqII, Tth111II, TthHB27I, TspGWI, TspDTI, TsoI, isolated from various Thermus sp. and two thermolabile enzymes: RpaI and CchII, isolated from mesophilic bacteria Rhodopseudomonas palustris and Chlorobium chlorochromatii, respectively. The enzymes have several properties in common. They are large proteins (molecular size app. 120 kDa), coded by fused genes, with the REase and methyltransferase (MTase) in a single polypeptide, where both activities are affected by S-adenosylmethionine (SAM). They recognize similar asymmetric cognate sites and cleave at a distance of 11/9 nt from the recognition site. Thus far, we have cloned and characterised TaqII, Tth111II, TthHB27I, TspGWI and TspDTI.

RESULTS

TsoI REase, which originate from thermophilic Thermus scotoductus RFL4 (T. scotoductus), was cloned in Escherichia coli (E. coli) using two rounds of biochemical selection of the T. scotoductus genomic library for the TsoI methylation phenotype. DNA sequencing of restriction-resistant clones revealed the common open reading frame (ORF) of 3348 bp, coding for a large polypeptide of 1116 aminoacid (aa) residues, which exhibited a high level of similarity to Tth111II (50% identity, 60% similarity). The ORF was PCR-amplified, subcloned into a pET21 derivative under the control of a T7 promoter and was subjected to the third round of biochemical selection in order to isolate error-free clones. Induction experiments resulted in synthesis of an app. 125 kDa protein, exhibiting TsoI-specific DNA cleavage. Also, the wild-type (wt) protein was purified and reaction optima were determined.

CONCLUSIONS

Previously we identified and cloned the Thermus family RM genes using a specially developed method based on partial proteolysis of thermostable REases. In the case of TsoI the classic biochemical selection method was successful, probably because of the substantially lower optimal reaction temperature of TsoI (app. 10-15°C). That allowed for sufficient MTase activity in vivo in recombinant E. coli. Interestingly, TsoI originates from bacteria with a high optimum growth temperature of 67°C, which indicates that not all bacterial enzymes match an organism's thermophilic nature, and yet remain functional cell components. Besides basic research advances, the cloning and characterisation of the new prototype REase from the Thermus sp. family enzymes is also of practical importance in gene manipulation technology, as it extends the range of available DNA cleavage specificities.

A new genomic tool, ultra-frequently cleaving TaqII/sinefungin endonuclease with a combined 2.9-bp recognition site, applied to the construction of horse DNA libraries

Background

Genomics and metagenomics are currently leading research areas, with DNA sequences accumulating at an exponential rate. Although enormous advances in DNA sequencing technologies are taking place, progress is frequently limited by factors such as genomic contig assembly and generation of representative libraries. A number of DNA fragmentation methods, such as hydrodynamic sharing, sonication or DNase I fragmentation, have various drawbacks, including DNA damage, poor fragmentation control, irreproducibility and non-overlapping DNA segment representation. Improvements in these limited DNA scission methods are consequently needed. An alternative method for obtaining higher quality DNA fragments involves partial digestion with restriction endonucleases (REases).

We have shown previously that class-IIS/IIC/IIG TspGWI REase, the prototype member of the Thermus sp. enzyme family, can be chemically relaxed by a cofactor analogue, allowing it to recognize very short DNA sequences of 3-bp combined frequency. Such frequently cleaving REases are extremely rare, with CviJI/CviJI*, SetI and FaiI the only other ones found in nature. Their unusual features make them very useful molecular tools for the development of representative DNA libraries.

Results

We constructed a horse genomic library and a deletion derivative library of the butyrylcholinesterase cDNA coding region using a novel method, based on TaqII, Thermus sp. family bifunctional enzyme exhibiting cofactor analogue specificity relaxation. We used sinefungin (SIN) – an S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) analogue with reversed charge pattern, and dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), to convert the 6-bp recognition site TaqII (5′-GACCGA-3′ [11/9]) into a theoretical 2.9-bp REase, with 70 shortened variants of the canonical recognition sequence detected. Because partial DNA cleavage is an inherent feature of the Thermus sp. enzyme family, this modified TaqII is uniquely suited to quasi-random library generation.

Conclusions

In the presence of SIN/DMSO, TaqII REase is transformed from cleaving every 4096 bp on average to cleaving every 58 bp. TaqII SIN/DMSO thus extends the palette of available REase prototype specificities. This phenomenon, employed under partial digestion conditions, was applied to quasi-random DNA fragmentation. Further applications include high sensitivity probe generation and metagenomic DNA amplification.

Related bifunctional restriction endonuclease-methyltransferase triplets: TspDTI, Tth111II/TthHB27I and TsoI with distinct specificities

BACKGROUND

We previously defined a family of restriction endonucleases (REases) from Thermus sp., which share common biochemical and biophysical features, such as the fusion of both the nuclease and methyltransferase (MTase) activities in a single polypeptide, cleavage at a distance from the recognition site, large molecular size, modulation of activity by S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), and incomplete cleavage of the substrate DNA. Members include related thermophilic REases with five distinct specificities: TspGWI, TaqII, Tth111II/TthHB27I, TspDTI and TsoI.

RESULTS

TspDTI, TsoI and isoschizomers Tth111II/TthHB27I recognize different, but related sequences: 5'-ATGAA-3', 5'-TARCCA-3' and 5'-CAARCA-3' respectively. Their amino acid sequences are similar, which is unusual among REases of different specificity. To gain insight into this group of REases, TspDTI, the prototype member of the Thermus sp. enzyme family, was cloned and characterized using a recently developed method for partially cleaving REases.

CONCLUSIONS

TspDTI, TsoI and isoschizomers Tth111II/TthHB27I are closely related bifunctional enzymes. They comprise a tandem arrangement of Type I-like domains, like other Type IIC enzymes (those with a fusion of a REase and MTase domains), e.g. TspGWI, TaqII and MmeI, but their sequences are only remotely similar to these previously characterized enzymes. The characterization of TspDTI, a prototype member of this group, extends our understanding of sequence-function relationships among multifunctional restriction-modification enzymes.

Bifunctional TaqII restriction endonuclease: redefining the prototype DNA recognition site and establishing the Fidelity Index for partial cleaving

Background

The TaqII enzyme is a member of the Thermus sp. enzyme family that we propounded previously within Type IIS restriction endonucleases, containing related thermophilic bifunctional endonucleases-methyltransferases from various Thermus sp.: TaqII, Tth111II, TthHB27I, TspGWI, TspDTI and TsoI. These enzymes show significant nucleotide and amino acid sequence similarities, a rare phenomenon among restriction endonucleases, along with similarities in biochemical properties, molecular size, DNA recognition sequences and cleavage sites. They also feature some characteristics of Types I and III.

Results

Barker et al. reported the Type IIS/IIC restriction endonuclease TaqII as recognizing two distinct cognate site variants (5'-GACCGA-3' and 5'-CACCCA-3') while cleaving 11/9 nucleotides downstream. We used four independent methods, namely, shotgun cloning and sequencing, restriction pattern analysis, digestion of particular custom substrates and GeneScan analysis, to demonstrate that the recombinant enzyme recognizes only 5'-GACCGA-3' sites and cleaves 11/9 nucleotides downstream. We did not observe any 5'-CACCCA-3' cleavage under a variety of conditions and site arrangements tested. We also characterized the enzyme biochemically and established new digestion conditions optimal for practical enzyme applications. Finally, we developed and propose a new version of the Fidelity Index - the Fidelity Index for Partial Cleavage (FI-PC).

Conclusions

The DNA recognition sequence of the bifunctional prototype TaqII endonuclease-methyltransferase from Thermus aquaticus has been redefined as recognizing only 5'-GACCGA-3' cognate sites. The reaction conditions (pH and salt concentrations) were designed either to minimize (pH = 8.0 and 10 mM ammonium sulphate) or to enhance star activity (pH = 6.0 and no salt). Redefinition of the recognition site and reaction conditions makes this prototype endonuclease a useful tool for DNA manipulation; as yet, this enzyme has no practical applications. The extension of the Fidelity Index will be helpful for DNA manipulation with enzymes only partially cleaving DNA.

Chemically-induced affinity star restriction specificity: a novel TspGWI/sinefungin endonuclease with theoretical 3-bp cleavage frequency

The type IIS/IIC restriction endonuclease TspGWI recognizes the sequence 5'-ACGGA-3', cleaving DNA 11/9 nucleotides downstream. Here we show that sinefungin, a cofactor analog of S-adenosyl methionine, induces a unique type of relaxation in DNA recognition specificity. In the presence of sinefungin, TspGWI recognizes and cleaves at least 12 degenerate variants of the original recognition sequence that vary by single base pair changes from the original 5-bp restriction site with only a single degeneracy per variant appearing to be allowed. In addition, sinefungin was found to have a stimulatory effect on cleavage at these nondegenerate TspGWI recognition sites, irrespective of their number or the DNA topology. Interestingly, no fixed "core" could be identified among the new recognition sequences. Theoretically, TspGWI cleaves DNA every 1024 bp, while sinefungin-induced activity cleaves every 78.8 bp, corresponding to a putative 3-bp long recognition site. Thus, the combination of sinefungin and TspGWI represents a novel frequent cutter, next only to CviJI/CviJI*, that should prove useful in DNA cloning methodologies.

The MmeI family: type II restriction-modification enzymes that employ single-strand modification for host protection

The type II restriction endonucleases form one of the largest families of biochemically-characterized proteins. These endonucleases typically share little sequence similarity, except among isoschizomers that recognize the same sequence. MmeI is an unusual type II restriction endonuclease that combines endonuclease and methyltransferase activities in a single polypeptide. MmeI cuts DNA 20 bases from its recognition sequence and modifies just one DNA strand for host protection. Using MmeI as query we have identified numerous putative genes highly similar to MmeI in database sequences. We have cloned and characterized 20 of these MmeI homologs. Each cuts DNA at the same distance as MmeI and each modifies a conserved adenine on only one DNA strand for host protection. However each enzyme recognizes a unique DNA sequence, suggesting these enzymes are undergoing rapid evolution of DNA specificity. The MmeI family thus provides a rich source of novel endonucleases while affording an opportunity to observe the evolution of DNA specificity. Because the MmeI family enzymes employ modification of only one DNA strand for host protection, unlike previously described type II systems, we propose that such single-strand modification systems be classified as a new subgroup, the type IIL enzymes, for Lone strand DNA modification.

Cloning and analysis of a bifunctional methyltransferase/restriction endonuclease TspGWI, the prototype of a Thermus sp. enzyme family

Background

Restriction-modification systems are a diverse class of enzymes. They are classified into four major types: I, II, III and IV. We have previously proposed the existence of a Thermus sp. enzyme family, which belongs to type II restriction endonucleases (REases), however, it features also some characteristics of types I and III. Members include related thermophilic endonucleases: TspGWI, TaqII, TspDTI, and Tth111II.

Results

Here we describe cloning, mutagenesis and analysis of the prototype TspGWI enzyme that recognises the 5'-ACGGA-3' site and cleaves 11/9 nt downstream. We cloned, expressed, and mutagenised the tspgwi gene and investigated the properties of its product, the bifunctional TspGWI restriction/modification enzyme. Since TspGWI does not cleave DNA completely, a cloning method was devised, based on amino acid sequencing of internal proteolytic fragments. The deduced amino acid sequence of the enzyme shares significant sequence similarity with another representative of the Thermus sp. family – TaqII. Interestingly, these enzymes recognise similar, yet different sequences in the DNA. Both enzymes cleave DNA at the same distance, but differ in their ability to cleave single sites and in the requirement of S-adenosylmethionine as an allosteric activator for cleavage. Both the restriction endonuclease (REase) and methyltransferase (MTase) activities of wild type (wt) TspGWI (either recombinant or isolated from Thermus sp.) are dependent on the presence of divalent cations.

Conclusion

TspGWI is a bifunctional protein comprising a tandem arrangement of Type I-like domains; particularly noticeable is the central HsdM-like module comprising a helical domain and a highly conserved S-adenosylmethionine-binding/catalytic MTase domain, containing DPAVGTG and NPPY motifs. TspGWI also possesses an N-terminal PD-(D/E)XK nuclease domain related to the corresponding domains in HsdR subunits, but lacks the ATP-dependent translocase module of the HsdR subunit and the additional domains that are involved in subunit-subunit interactions in Type I systems. The MTase and REase activities of TspGWI are autonomous and can be uncoupled. Structurally and functionally, the TspGWI protomer appears to be a streamlined 'half' of a Type I enzyme.

A new Thermus sp. class-IIS enzyme sub-family: isolation of a 'twin' endonuclease TspDTI with a novel specificity 5'-ATGAA(N(11/9))-3', related to TspGWI, TaqII and Tth111II

The TspDTI restriction endonuclease, which shows a novel recognition specificity 5'-ATGAA(N(11/9))-3', was isolated from Thermus sp. DT. TspDTI appears to be a 'twin' of restriction endonuclease TspGWI from Thermus sp. GW, as we have previously reported. TspGWI was isolated from the same location as TspDTI, it recognizes a related sequence 5'-ACGGA(N(11/9))-3' and has conserved cleavage positions. Both enzymes resemble two other class-IIS endonucleases from Thermus sp.: TaqII and Tth111II. N-terminal amino acid sequences of TspGWI tryptic peptides exhibit 88.9-100% similarity to the TaqII sequence. All four enzymes were purified to homogeneity; their polypeptide sizes (114.5-122 kDa) make them the largest class-IIS restriction endonucleases known to date. The existence of a Thermus sp. sub-family of class-IIS restriction endonucleases of a common origin is herein proposed.

TspGWI, a thermophilic class-IIS restriction endonuclease from Thermus sp., recognizes novel asymmetric sequence 5'-ACGGA(N11/9)-3'

A novel prototype class-IIS restriction endonuclease, TspGWI, was isolated from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus sp. GW. The recognition sequence and cleavage positions have been established: TspGWI recognizes the non-palindromic 5-bp sequence 5'-ACGGA-3' and cleaves the DNA 11 and 9 nt downstream in the top and bottom strand, respectively. In addition, an accompanying endonuclease, TspGWII, an isoschizomer of Pst I, was found in Thermus sp. GW cells.

Two new thermostable type II restriction endonucleases from Thermus aquaticus: TatI and TauI, which recognize the novel nucleotide sequences 5'-W (downward arrow)GTACW-3' and 5'-GCSG (downward arrow)C-3' respectively

One hundred and forty isolates of thermophilic bacteria from the genus Thermus were screened for the presence of restriction endonuclease activity. Thermostable isoschizomers of restriction endonucleases, such as AceIII, BbvI, BglI, BsePI, FnuDII, HgiAI, MaeII, MboI, MseI, PvuII, StuI, TaqI, Tsp4CI, TspEI, XhoI and XmaIII, were isolated. Two restriction enzymes, TatI and TauI, recognizing novel degenerate sequences 5'-W (downward arrow)GTACW-3' and 5'-GCSG (downward arrow)C-3' respectively were partially purified and the recognition and cleavage sites were determined.

FokI dimerization is required for DNA cleavage

FokI is a type IIs restriction endonuclease comprised of a DNA recognition domain and a catalytic domain. The structural similarity of the FokI catalytic domain to the type II restriction endonuclease BamHI monomer suggested that the FokI catalytic domains may dimerize. In addition, the FokI structure, presented in an accompanying paper in this issue of Proceedings, reveals a dimerization interface between catalytic domains. We provide evidence here that FokI catalytic domain must dimerize for DNA cleavage to occur. First, we show that the rate of DNA cleavage catalyzed by various concentrations of FokI are not directly proportional to the protein concentration, suggesting a cooperative effect for DNA cleavage. Second, we constructed a FokI variant, FokN13Y, which is unable to bind the FokI recognition sequence but when mixed with wild-type FokI increases the rate of DNA cleavage. Additionally, the FokI catalytic domain that lacks the DNA binding domain was shown to increase the rate of wild-type FokI cleavage of DNA. We also constructed an FokI variant, FokD483A, R487A, which should be defective for dimerization because the altered residues reside at the putative dimerization interface. Consistent with the FokI dimerization model, the variant FokD483A, R487A revealed greatly impaired DNA cleavage. Based on our work and previous reports, we discuss a pathway of DNA binding, dimerization, and cleavage by FokI endonuclease.

Two different isoschizomers of the type-II restriction endonuclease Taq I (T/CGA) within the same Thermus isolate: Tsp32 I, an enzyme with similar heat stability properties to the prototype enzyme Taq I, and Tsp32 II, a hyperthermostable isoschizomer of Taq I

We have recently screened 112 separate isolates of the genus Thermus, collected from neutral and alkaline hot water springs on four continents, for the presence of the Type-II restriction endonuclease Taq I (T/CGA). One particular isolate from the Azores (strain 32) was found to contain high levels of a restriction endonuclease with the same recognition and cleavage site as Taq I. Initial studies revealed that the partially purified enzyme from strain 32 was considerably more resistant to heat inactivation than the prototype enzyme Taq I, being able to withstand temperatures at least 10 degrees C higher than Taq I, before showing evidence of heat inactivation. Subsequently it became clear that the partially purified extract from strain 32 contains two separate enzymes, both of which are isoschizomers of Taq I. One of the enzymes, Tsp32 I, has similar thermal stability characteristics to Taq I, whereas the second Taq I isoschizomer, Tsp32 II, found in the same Thermus isolate as Tsp32 I, is considerably more thermostable than Taq I, retaining full enzyme activity up to a temperature of 85 degrees C. Tsp32 I and Tsp32 II were further distinguished by virtue of their different requirements for magnesium ions.

MmeI, a class-IIS restriction endonuclease: purification and characterization

Two restriction endonucleases, MmeI and MmeII, from Methylophilus methylotrophus were purified to homogeneity. Both enzymes belong to the class-II restriction endonucleases (ENases) but exhibit very different enzymatic and physical properties. MmeII is a typical member of class-II ENases. It is a polymeric protein composed of 50-kDa subunits. In contrast to MmeII, MmeI is a monomeric protein of 101 kDa, cleaving a DNA molecule 20/18 nucleotides away from the asymmetric recognition sequence (5'-TCCRAC-3'); therefore, it is classified as a member of subclass-IIS. MmeI has an pI of 7.85 and is active in the pH range 6.5 to 10 with the optimum at 7 to 8. Increasing salt concentration creates an inhibitory effect on MmeI: 40 mM KCl decreases activity by 50%, 100 mM completely inhibits DNA cleavage. Tris.HCl (pH 7.5) at a concentration exceeding 20 mM inhibits MmeI activity. Mg2+ stimulates MmeI in the range of 0.2 to 35 mM, with the optimum between 0.5 and 10 mM.

A new restriction endonuclease, TspEI, from the genus Thermus that generates cohesive termini compatible with those of EcoRI

The detection, isolation and properties of the restriction endonuclease TspEI are described. The canonical recognition sequence (AATT) is the same as the 4-bp core of the 6-bp sequence (GAATTC) of EcoRI. Hydrolysis occurs 5' to the palindromic tetramer so that TspEI produces the same cohesive termini as EcoRI. TspEI therefore has an obvious application in producing partial digests of DNA for ligation to EcoRI-digested cloning vectors.

Class-IIS restriction enzymes--a review

Class-IIS restriction enzymes (ENases-IIS) interact with two discrete sites on double-stranded DNA: the recognition site, which is 4-7 bp long, and the cleavage site, usually 1-20 bp away from the recognition site. The recognition sequences of ENases-IIS are totally (or partially) asymmetric and all of the characterized ENases-IIS are monomeric. A total of 35 ENases-IIS are described (80, if all isoschizomers are taken into consideration) together with ten related ENases (class IIT), and 15 cognate methyltransferases (MTases-IIS). The physical, chemical, and molecular properties of the ENases-IIS and MTases-IIS are reviewed and many unique applications of this class of enzymes are described, including: precise trimming of DNA; retrieval of cloned fragments; gene assembly; use as a universal restriction enzyme; cleavage of single-stranded DNA; detection of point mutations; tandem amplification; printing-amplification reaction; and localization of methylated bases.

Purification and characterization of the FokI restriction endonuclease

The restriction endonuclease FokI from Flavobacterium okeanokoites was purified to homogeneity. Based on gel filtration, sedimentation and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis, the following properties of the enzyme were determined: FokI exists in one active monomeric form, and has an Mr of 64-65.4 x 10(3).FokI is a strongly basic protein with an isoelectric point of 9.4. The enzyme exhibits restriction activity in the pH range 5.0 to 10.5 (maximum level at pH 7.0-8.5) and its divalent cation requirement is satisfied not only by Mg2+, but also by Co2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, Cd2+, Zn2+ and Fe2+.

Isolation and computer-aided characterization of MmeI, a type II restriction endonuclease from Methylophilus methylotrophus

A Type II restriction endonuclease, MmeI, has been purified from the obligate methylotroph, Methylophilus methylotrophus. The enzyme was shown to have the non-palindromic recognition sequence 5'-T C C Pu A C (N)20-3', 3'-A G G Py T G (N)18-5' and to cleave (as indicated) on the 3' side, generating a two nucleotide 3' projection. Determination of the recognition sequence was achieved using two new computer programs; RECOG, which predicts recognition sequences from the pattern of restriction fragments obtained from DNAs of known sequence, and GELSIM, which generates graphical simulations of DNA band patterns obtained by gel electrophoresis of restriction digests of sequenced DNA molecules.

Specificity of restriction endonucleases and methylases--a review

The properties and sources of all known restriction endonucleases and methylases are listed. The enzymes are cross-indexed (Table I), classified according to their recognition sequence homologies (Table II), and characterized within Table II by the cleavage and methylation positions, the number of recognition sites on the double-stranded DNA of the bacteriophages lambda, phi X174 and M13mp7, the viruses Ad2 and SV40, the plasmids pBR322 and pBR328, and the microorganisms from which they originate. Other tabulated properties of the restriction endonucleases include relaxed specificities (integrated into Table II), the structure of the generated fragment ends (Table III), and the sensitivity to different kinds of DNA methylation (Table V). In Table IV the conversion of two- and four-base 5'-protruding ends into new recognition sequences is compiled which is obtained by the fill-in reaction with Klenow fragment of the Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I or additional nuclease S1 treatment followed by ligation of the modified fragment termini [P3]. Interconversion of restriction sites generates novel cloning sites without the need of linkers. This should improve the flexibility of genetic engineering experiments. Table VI classifies the restriction methylases according to the nature of the methylated base(s) within their recognition sequences. This table also comprises restriction endonucleases which are known to be inhibited or activated by the modified nucleotides. The detailed sequences of those overlapping restriction sites are also included which become resistant to cleavage after the sequential action of corresponding restriction methylases and endonucleases [N11, M21]. By this approach large DNA fragments can be generated which is helpful in the construction of genomic libraries. The data given in both Tables IV and VI allow the design of novel sequence specificities. These procedures complement the creation of universal cleavage specificities applying class IIS enzymes and bivalent DNA adapter molecules [P17, S82].

Recognition sequences of restriction endonucleases and methylases--a review

The properties and sources of all known endonucleases and methylases acting site-specifically on DNA are listed. The enzymes are crossindexed (Table I), classified according to homologies within their recognition sequences (Table II), and characterized within Table II by the cleavage and methylation positions, the number of recognition sites on the DNA of the bacteriophages lambda, phi X174 and M13mp7, the viruses Ad2 and SV40, the plasmids pBR322 and pBR328 and the microorganisms from which they originate. Other tabulated properties of the restriction endonucleases include relaxed specificities (Table III), the structure of the restriction fragment ends (Table IV), and the sensitivity to different kinds of DNA methylation (Table V). Table VI classifies the methylases according to the nature of the methylated base(s) within their recognition sequences. This table also comprises those restriction endonucleases, which are known to be inhibited by the modified nucleotides. Furthermore, this review includes a restriction map of bacteriophage lambda DNA based on sequence data. Table VII lists the exact nucleotide positions of the cleavage sites, the length of the generated fragments ordered according to size, and the effects of the Escherichia coli dam- and dcmI-coded methylases M X Eco dam and M X Eco dcmI on the particular recognition sites.

The 3'-terminal region of bacterial 23S ribosomal RNA: structure and homology with the 3'-terminal region of eukaryotic 28S rRNA and with chloroplast 4.5s rRNA

The sequence of the 110 nucleotide fragment located at the 3'-end of E.coli, P.vulgaris and A.punctata 23S rRNAs has been determined. The homology between the E.coli and P.vulgaris fragments is 90%, whereas that between the E.coli and A.punctate fragments is only 60%. The three rRNA fragments have sequences compatible with a secondary structure consisting of two hairpins. Using chemical and enzymatic methods recently developed for the study of the secondary structure of RNA, we demonstrated that one of these hairpins and part of the other are actually present in the three 3'-terminal fragments in solution. This supports the existence of these two hairpins in the intact molecule. Indeed, results obtained upon limited digestion of intact 23S RNA with T1 RNase were in good agreement with the existence of these two hairpins. We observed that the primary structures of the 3'-terminal regions of yeast 26S rRNA and X.laevis 28S rRNA are both compatible with a secondary structure similar to that found at the 3'-end of bacterial 23S rRNAs. Furthermore, both tobacco and wheat chloroplast 4.5S rRNAs can also be folded in a similar way as the 3'-terminal region of bacterial 23S rRNA, the 3'-end of chloroplast 4.5S rRNAs being complementary to the 5'-end of chloroplast 23S rRNA. This strongly reinforces the hypothesis that chloroplast 4.5S rRNA originates from the 3'-end of bacterial 23S rRNA and suggests that this rRNA may be base-paired with the 5'-end of chloroplast 23S rRNA. Invariant oligonucleotides are present at identical positions in the homologous secondary structures of E.coli 23S, yeast 26S, X.laevis 28S and wheat and tobacco 4.5S rRNAs. Surprisingly, the sequences of these oligonucleotides are not all conserved in the 3'-terminal regions of A.punctata or even P.vulgaris 23S rRNAs. Results obtained upon mild methylation of E.coli 50S subunits with dimethylsulfate strongly suggest that these invariant oligonucleotides are involved in RNA tertiary structure or in RNA-protein interactions.