1
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Ero R, Leppik M, Reier K, Liiv A, Remme J. Ribosomal RNA modification enzymes stimulate large ribosome subunit assembly in E. coli. Nucleic Acids Res 2024; 52:6614-6628. [PMID: 38554109 PMCID: PMC11194073 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkae222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Ribosomal RNA modifications are introduced by specific enzymes during ribosome assembly in bacteria. Deletion of individual modification enzymes has a minor effect on bacterial growth, ribosome biogenesis, and translation, which has complicated the definition of the function of the enzymes and their products. We have constructed an Escherichia coli strain lacking 10 genes encoding enzymes that modify 23S rRNA around the peptidyl-transferase center. This strain exhibits severely compromised growth and ribosome assembly, especially at lower temperatures. Re-introduction of the individual modification enzymes allows for the definition of their functions. The results demonstrate that in addition to previously known RlmE, also RlmB, RlmKL, RlmN and RluC facilitate large ribosome subunit assembly. RlmB and RlmKL have functions in ribosome assembly independent of their modification activities. While the assembly stage specificity of rRNA modification enzymes is well established, this study demonstrates that there is a mutual interdependence between the rRNA modification process and large ribosome subunit assembly.
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MESH Headings
- Escherichia coli/genetics
- Escherichia coli/metabolism
- Escherichia coli Proteins/metabolism
- Escherichia coli Proteins/genetics
- Methyltransferases/metabolism
- Methyltransferases/genetics
- Ribosome Subunits, Large/metabolism
- Ribosome Subunits, Large/genetics
- Ribosome Subunits, Large, Bacterial/metabolism
- Ribosome Subunits, Large, Bacterial/genetics
- Ribosomes/metabolism
- Ribosomes/genetics
- RNA, Ribosomal/metabolism
- RNA, Ribosomal/genetics
- RNA, Ribosomal, 23S/metabolism
- RNA, Ribosomal, 23S/genetics
- RNA, Ribosomal, 23S/chemistry
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Affiliation(s)
- Rya Ero
- IMCB University of Tartu, Riia 23, 51010 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Margus Leppik
- IMCB University of Tartu, Riia 23, 51010 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Kaspar Reier
- IMCB University of Tartu, Riia 23, 51010 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Aivar Liiv
- IMCB University of Tartu, Riia 23, 51010 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Jaanus Remme
- IMCB University of Tartu, Riia 23, 51010 Tartu, Estonia
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2
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Popova AM, Jain N, Dong X, Abdollah-Nia F, Britton RA, Williamson JR. Complete list of canonical post-transcriptional modifications in the Bacillus subtilis ribosome and their link to RbgA driven large subunit assembly. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.10.593627. [PMID: 38765983 PMCID: PMC11100780 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.10.593627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Ribosomal RNA modifications in prokaryotes have been sporadically studied, but there is a lack of a comprehensive picture of modification sites across bacterial phylogeny. B. subtilis is a preeminent model organism for gram-positive bacteria, with a well-annotated and editable genome, convenient for fundamental studies and industrial use. Yet remarkably, there has been no complete characterization of its rRNA modification inventory. By expanding modern MS tools for the discovery of RNA modifications, we found a total of 25 modification sites in 16S and 23S rRNA of B. subtilis, including the chemical identity of the modified nucleosides and their precise sequence location. Furthermore, by perturbing large subunit biogenesis using depletion of an essential factor RbgA and measuring the completion of 23S modifications in the accumulated intermediate, we provide a first look at the order of modification steps during the late stages of assembly in B. subtilis. While our work expands the knowledge of bacterial rRNA modification patterns, adding B. subtilis to the list of fully annotated species after E. coli and T. thermophilus, in a broader context, it provides the experimental framework for discovery and functional profiling of rRNA modifications to ultimately elucidate their role in ribosome biogenesis and translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M. Popova
- Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Nikhil Jain
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA, Center for Metagenomics and Microbiome Research, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Xiyu Dong
- Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Farshad Abdollah-Nia
- Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Robert A. Britton
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA, Center for Metagenomics and Microbiome Research, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - James R. Williamson
- Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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3
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Fleming AM, Bommisetti P, Xiao S, Bandarian V, Burrows CJ. Direct Nanopore Sequencing for the 17 RNA Modification Types in 36 Locations in the E. coli Ribosome Enables Monitoring of Stress-Dependent Changes. ACS Chem Biol 2023; 18:2211-2223. [PMID: 37345867 PMCID: PMC10594579 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.3c00166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
The bacterium Escherichia coli possesses 16S and 23S rRNA strands that have 36 chemical modification sites with 17 different structures. Nanopore direct RNA sequencing using a protein nanopore sensor and helicase brake, which is also a sensor, was applied to the rRNAs. Nanopore current levels, base calling profile, and helicase dwell times for the modifications relative to unmodified synthetic rRNA controls found signatures for nearly all modifications. Signatures for clustered modifications were determined by selective sequencing of writer knockout E. coli and sequencing of synthetic RNAs utilizing some custom-synthesized nucleotide triphosphates for their preparation. The knowledge of each modification's signature, apart from 5-methylcytidine, was used to determine how metabolic and cold-shock stress impact rRNA modifications. Metabolic stress resulted in either no change or a decrease, and one site increased in modification occupancy, while cold-shock stress led to either no change or a decrease. The double modification m4Cm1402 resides in 16S rRNA, and it decreased with both stressors. Using the helicase dwell time, it was determined that the N4 methyl group is lost during both stressors, and the 2'-OMe group remained. In the ribosome, this modification stabilizes binding to the mRNA codon at the P-site resulting in increased translational fidelity that is lost during stress. The E. coli genome has seven rRNA operons (rrn), and the earlier studies aligned the nanopore reads to a single operon (rrnA). Here, the reads were aligned to all seven operons to identify operon-specific changes in the 11 pseudouridines. This study demonstrates that direct sequencing for >16 different RNA modifications in a strand is achievable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron M. Fleming
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 S. 1400 East, Salt Lake
City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
| | - Praneeth Bommisetti
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 S. 1400 East, Salt Lake
City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
| | - Songjun Xiao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 S. 1400 East, Salt Lake
City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
| | - Vahe Bandarian
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 S. 1400 East, Salt Lake
City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
| | - Cynthia J. Burrows
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 S. 1400 East, Salt Lake
City, Utah 84112-0850, United States
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4
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Narayan G, Gracia Mazuca LA, Cho SS, Mohl JE, Koculi E. RNA Post-transcriptional Modifications of an Early-Stage Large-Subunit Ribosomal Intermediate. Biochemistry 2023; 62:2908-2915. [PMID: 37751522 PMCID: PMC11088935 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.3c00291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Protein production by ribosomes is fundamental to life, and proper assembly of the ribosome is required for protein production. The RNA, which is post-transcriptionally modified, provides the platform for ribosome assembly. Thus, a complete understanding of ribosome assembly requires the determination of the RNA post-transcriptional modifications in all of the ribosome assembly intermediates and on each pathway. There are 26 RNA post-transcriptional modifications in 23S RNA of the mature Escherichia coli (E. coli) large ribosomal subunit. The levels of these modifications have been investigated extensively only for a small number of large subunit intermediates and under a limited number of cellular and environmental conditions. In this study, we determined the level of incorporations of 2-methyl adenosine, 3-methyl pseudouridine, 5-hydroxycytosine, and seven pseudouridines in an early-stage E. coli large-subunit assembly intermediate with a sedimentation coefficient of 27S. The 27S intermediate is one of three large subunit intermediates accumulated in E. coli cells lacking the DEAD-box RNA helicase DbpA and expressing the helicase inactive R331A DbpA construct. The majority of the investigated modifications are incorporated into the 27S large subunit intermediate to similar levels to those in the mature 50S large subunit, indicating that these early modifications or the enzymes that incorporate them play important roles in the initial events of large subunit ribosome assembly.
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MESH Headings
- RNA Processing, Post-Transcriptional
- Escherichia coli/genetics
- Escherichia coli/metabolism
- RNA, Bacterial/metabolism
- RNA, Bacterial/genetics
- RNA, Bacterial/chemistry
- Escherichia coli Proteins/metabolism
- Escherichia coli Proteins/genetics
- RNA, Ribosomal, 23S/metabolism
- RNA, Ribosomal, 23S/genetics
- RNA, Ribosomal, 23S/chemistry
- Ribosome Subunits, Large, Bacterial/metabolism
- Ribosome Subunits, Large, Bacterial/genetics
- DEAD-box RNA Helicases/metabolism
- DEAD-box RNA Helicases/genetics
- Pseudouridine/metabolism
- Ribosomes/metabolism
- Ribosomes/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyan Narayan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79968, United States
| | - Luis A Gracia Mazuca
- Bioinformatics Program, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79968, United States
| | - Samuel S Cho
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27109, United States
- Department of Computer Science, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27109, United States
| | - Jonathon E Mohl
- Bioinformatics Program, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79968, United States
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79968, United States
| | - Eda Koculi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79968, United States
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5
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Chu M, Qin Y, Lin X, Ma L, Deng D, Lv D, Fu P, Lin H. A Preliminary Survey of Transfer RNA Modifications and Modifying Enzymes of the Tropical Plant Cocos nucifera L. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:1287. [PMID: 37372467 DOI: 10.3390/genes14061287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is a commercial crop widely distributed among coastal tropical regions. It provides millions of farmers with food, fuel, cosmetics, folk medicine, and building materials. Among these, oil and palm sugar are representative extracts. However, this unique living species of Cocos has only been preliminarily studied at molecular levels. Benefiting from the genomic sequence data published in 2017 and 2021, we investigated the transfer RNA (tRNA) modifications and modifying enzymes of the coconut in this survey. An extraction method for the tRNA pool from coconut flesh was built. In total, 33 species of modified nucleosides and 66 homologous genes of modifying enzymes were confirmed using a nucleoside analysis using high-performance liquid chromatography combined with high-resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS) and homologous protein sequence alignment. The positions of tRNA modifications, including pseudouridines, were preliminarily mapped using a oligonucleotide analysis, and the features of their modifying enzymes were summarized. Interestingly, we found that the gene encoding the modifying enzyme of 2'-O-ribosyladenosine at the 64th position of tRNA (Ar(p)64) was uniquely overexpressed under high-salinity stress. In contrast, most other tRNA-modifying enzymes were downregulated with mining transcriptomic sequencing data. According to previous physiological studies of Ar(p)64, the coconut appears to enhance the quality control of the translation process when subjected to high-salinity stress. We hope this survey can help advance research on tRNA modification and scientific studies of the coconut, as well as thinking of the safety and nutritional value of naturally modified nucleosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
- School of Life Sciences, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Yichao Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Xiuying Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
- School of Life Sciences, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Li Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
- College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Dehai Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
- College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Daizhu Lv
- Analysis and Testing Center, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China
| | - Pengcheng Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
| | - Huan Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Resource Utilization in South China Sea, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
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6
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Schultz SK, Meadows K, Kothe U. Molecular mechanism of tRNA binding by the Escherichia coli N7 guanosine methyltransferase TrmB. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:104612. [PMID: 36933808 PMCID: PMC10130221 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.104612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the large and diverse collection of tRNA modifications, 7-methylguanosine (m7G) is frequently found in the tRNA variable loop at position 46. This modification is introduced by the TrmB enzyme, which is conserved in bacteria and eukaryotes. However, the molecular determinants and the mechanism for tRNA recognition by TrmB are not well understood. Complementing the report of various phenotypes for different organisms lacking TrmB homologs, we report here hydrogen peroxide sensitivity for the Escherichia coli ΔtrmB knockout strain. To gain insight into the molecular mechanism of tRNA binding by E. coli TrmB in real-time, we developed a new assay based on introducing a 4-thiouridine modification at position 8 of in vitro transcribed tRNAPhe enabling us to fluorescently label this unmodified tRNA. Using rapid kinetic stopped-flow measurements with this fluorescent tRNA, we examined the interaction of wildtype and single substitution variants of TrmB with tRNA. Our results reveal the role of SAM for rapid and stable tRNA binding, the rate-limiting nature of m7G46 catalysis for tRNA release, and the importance of residues R26, T127 and R155 across the entire surface of TrmB for tRNA binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K Schultz
- Alberta RNA Research and Training Institute (ARRTI), Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Kieran Meadows
- Alberta RNA Research and Training Institute (ARRTI), Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Ute Kothe
- Alberta RNA Research and Training Institute (ARRTI), Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
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7
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Liljeruhm J, Leppik M, Bao L, Truu T, Calvo-Noriega M, Freyer NS, Liiv A, Wang J, Blanco RC, Ero R, Remme J, Forster AC. Plasticity and conditional essentiality of modification enzymes for domain V of Escherichia coli 23S ribosomal RNA. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2022; 28:796-807. [PMID: 35260421 PMCID: PMC9074899 DOI: 10.1261/rna.079096.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Escherichia coli rRNAs are post-transcriptionally modified at 36 positions but their modification enzymes are dispensable individually for growth, bringing into question their significance. However, a major growth defect was reported for deletion of the RlmE enzyme, which abolished a 2'O methylation near the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) of the 23S rRNA. Additionally, an adjacent 80-nt "critical region" around the PTC had to be modified to yield significant peptidyl transferase activity in vitro. Surprisingly, we discovered that an absence of just two rRNA modification enzymes is conditionally lethal (at 20°C): RlmE and RluC. At a permissive temperature (37°C), this double knockout was shown to abolish four modifications and be defective in ribosome assembly, though not more so than the RlmE single knockout. However, the double knockout exhibited an even lower rate of tripeptide synthesis than did the single knockout, suggesting an even more defective ribosomal translocation. A combination knockout of the five critical-region-modifying enzymes RluC, RlmKL, RlmN, RlmM, and RluE (not RlmE), which synthesize five of the seven critical-region modifications and 14 rRNA and tRNA modifications altogether, was viable (minor growth defect at 37°C, major at 20°C). This was surprising based on prior in vitro studies. This five-knockout combination had minimal effects on ribosome assembly and frameshifting at 37°C, but greater effects on ribosome assembly and in vitro peptidyl transferase activity at cooler temperatures. These results establish the conditional essentiality of bacterial rRNA modification enzymes and also reveal unexpected plasticity of modification of the PTC region in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josefine Liljeruhm
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala 75124, Sweden
| | - Margus Leppik
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Tartu, 51010 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Letian Bao
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala 75124, Sweden
| | - Triin Truu
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Tartu, 51010 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Maria Calvo-Noriega
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala 75124, Sweden
| | - Nicola S Freyer
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala 75124, Sweden
| | - Aivar Liiv
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Tartu, 51010 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Jinfan Wang
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala 75124, Sweden
| | - Rubén Crespo Blanco
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala 75124, Sweden
| | - Rya Ero
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Tartu, 51010 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Jaanus Remme
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Tartu, 51010 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Anthony C Forster
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala 75124, Sweden
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8
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Koculi E, Cho SS. RNA Post-Transcriptional Modifications in Two Large Subunit Intermediates Populated in E. coli Cells Expressing Helicase Inactive R331A DbpA. Biochemistry 2022; 61:833-842. [PMID: 35481783 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.2c00096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
23S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) of Escherichia coli 50S large ribosome subunit contains 26 post-transcriptionally modified nucleosides. Here, we determine the extent of modifications in the 35S and 45S large subunit intermediates, accumulating in cells expressing the helicase inactive DbpA protein, R331A, and the native 50S large subunit. The modifications we characterized are 3-methylpseudouridine, 2-methyladenine, 5-hydroxycytidine, and nine pseudouridines. These modifications were detected using 1-cyclohexyl-3-(2-morpholinoethyl)carbodiimide metho-p-toluenesulfonate (CMCT) treatment followed by alkaline treatment. In addition, KMnO4 treatment of 23S rRNA was employed to detect 5-hydroxycytidine modification. CMCT and KMnO4 treatments produce chemical changes in modified nucleotides that cause reverse transcriptase misincorporations and deletions, which were detected employing next-generation sequencing. Our results show that the 2-methyladenine modification and seven uridines to pseudouridine isomerizations are present in both the 35S and 45S to similar extents as in the 50S. Hence, the enzymes that perform these modifications, namely, RluA, RluB, RluC, RluE, RluF, and RlmN, have already acted in the intermediates. Two uridines to pseudouridine isomerizations, the 3-methylpseudouridine and 5-hydroxycytidine modifications, are significantly less present in the 35S and 45S, as compared to the 50S. Therefore, the enzymes that incorporate these modifications, RluD, RlmH, and RlhA, are in the process of modifying the 35S and 45S or will incorporate these modifications during the later stages of ribosome assembly. Our study employs a novel high throughput and single nucleotide resolution technique for the detection of 2-methyladenine and two novel high throughput and single nucleotide resolution techniques for the detection of 5-hydroxycytidine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eda Koculi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
| | - Samuel S Cho
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27109, United States.,Department of Computer Science, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27109, United States
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Joo M, Yeom JH, Choi Y, Jun H, Song W, Kim HL, Lee K, Shin E. Specialised ribosomes as versatile regulators of gene expression. RNA Biol 2022; 19:1103-1114. [PMID: 36255182 PMCID: PMC9586635 DOI: 10.1080/15476286.2022.2135299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The ribosome has long been thought to be a homogeneous cellular machine that constitutively and globally synthesises proteins from mRNA. However, recent studies have revealed that ribosomes are highly heterogeneous, dynamic macromolecular complexes with specialised roles in translational regulation in many organisms across the kingdoms. In this review, we summarise the current understanding of ribosome heterogeneity and the specialised functions of heterogeneous ribosomes. We also discuss specialised translation systems that utilise orthogonal ribosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minju Joo
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Hyun Yeom
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Younkyung Choi
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeon Jun
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Wooseok Song
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Lee Kim
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kangseok Lee
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Eunkyoung Shin
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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