A novel function for the Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 complex in base excision repair

Targeting Mre11 overcomes platinum resistance and induces synthetic lethality in XRCC1 deficient epithelial ovarian cancers

Platinum resistance is a clinical challenge in ovarian cancer. Platinating agents induce DNA damage which activate Mre11 nuclease directed DNA damage signalling and response (DDR). Upregulation of DDR may promote chemotherapy resistance. Here we have comprehensively evaluated Mre11 in epithelial ovarian cancers. In clinical cohort that received platinum- based chemotherapy (n = 331), Mre11 protein overexpression was associated with aggressive phenotype and poor progression free survival (PFS) (p = 0.002). In the ovarian cancer genome atlas (TCGA) cohort (n = 498), Mre11 gene amplification was observed in a subset of serous tumours (5%) which correlated highly with Mre11 mRNA levels (p < 0.0001). Altered Mre11 levels was linked with genome wide alterations that can influence platinum sensitivity. At the transcriptomic level (n = 1259), Mre11 overexpression was associated with poor PFS (p = 0.003). ROC analysis showed an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.642 for response to platinum-based chemotherapy. Pre-clinically, Mre11 depletion by gene knock down or blockade by small molecule inhibitor (Mirin) reversed platinum resistance in ovarian cancer cells and in 3D spheroid models. Importantly, Mre11 inhibition was synthetically lethal in platinum sensitive XRCC1 deficient ovarian cancer cells and 3D-spheroids. Selective cytotoxicity was associated with DNA double strand break (DSB) accumulation, S-phase cell cycle arrest and increased apoptosis. We conclude that pharmaceutical development of Mre11 inhibitors is a viable clinical strategy for platinum sensitization and synthetic lethality in ovarian cancer.

Reconsidering the Chemical Nature of Strand Breaks Derived from Abasic Sites in Cellular DNA: Evidence for 3'-Glutathionylation

The hydrolytic loss of coding bases from cellular DNA is a common and unavoidable reaction. The resulting abasic sites can undergo β-elimination of the 3'-phosphoryl group to generate a strand break with an electrophilic α,β-unsaturated aldehyde residue on the 3'-terminus. The work reported here provides evidence that the thiol residue of the cellular tripeptide glutathione rapidly adds to the alkenal group on the 3'-terminus of an AP-derived strand break. The resulting glutathionylated adduct is the only major cleavage product observed when β-elimination occurs at an AP site in the presence of glutathione. Formation of the glutathionylated cleavage product is reversible, but in the presence of physiological concentrations of glutathione, the adduct persists for days. Biochemical experiments provided evidence that the 3'-phosphodiesterase activity of the enzyme apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease (APE1) can remove the glutathionylated sugar remnant from an AP-derived strand break to generate the 3'OH residue required for repair via base excision or single-strand break repair pathways. The results suggest that a previously unrecognized 3'glutathionylated sugar remnant─and not the canonical α,β-unsaturated aldehyde end group─may be the true strand cleavage product arising from β-elimination at an abasic site in cellular DNA. This work introduces the 3'glutathionylated cleavage product as the major blocking group that must be trimmed to enable repair of abasic site-derived strand breaks by the base excision repair or single-strand break repair pathways.

Host Chromatin Regulators Required for Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans Cytolethal Distending Toxin Activity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Model

Cytolethal distending toxin (CDT) is a bacterial genotoxin that causes host cell cycle arrest and death. We previously employed a Saccharomyces cerevisiae model with inducible expression of the CDT catalytic subunit from Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, AaCdtB, and showed that a wide variety of host factors play a role in facilitating the activity of CdtB. Our observation that a yeast H2B mutant defective in chromatin condensation was partially resistant to CdtB implies that chromatin structure may affect CDT function. In this study, we identified host chromatin regulatory genes required for CdtB cytotoxicity. We found that the deletion of HTZ1 or certain subunits of SWR, INO80, and SIR complexes increased cellular resistance to CdtB. We hypothesized that CdtB may interact with Htz1 or the chromatin, but immunoprecipitation experiments failed to detect physical interaction between CdtB and Htz1 or the chromatin. However, we observed reduced nuclear localization of CdtB in several mutants, suggesting that impaired nuclear translocation may, at least partly, explain the mechanisms of CdtB resistance. In addition, mutations in chromatin regulatory genes induce changes in the global gene expression profile, and these may indirectly affect CdtB toxicity. Our results suggest that decreased expression of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-Golgi transport-related genes that may be involved in CdtB transport and/or increased expression of DNA repair genes may contribute to CdtB resistance. These results suggest that the functions of chromatin regulators may contribute to the activity of CDT in host cells.

Yeast MRX deletions have short chronological life span and more triacylglycerols

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an excellent model organism for lipid research. Here, we have used yeast haploid RAdiation Damage (RAD) deletion strains to study life span and lipid storage patterns. RAD genes are mainly involved in DNA repair mechanism and hence, their deletions have resulted in shorter life span. Viable RAD mutants were screened for non-polar lipid content, and some of the mutants showed significantly high amounts of triacylglycerol (TAG) and steryl ester, besides short chronological life span. Among these, RAD50, MRE11 and XRS2 form a complex, MRX that is involved in homologous recombination that showed an increase in the amount of TAG. Microarray data of single MRX deletions revealed that besides DNA damage signature genes, lipid metabolism genes are also differentially expressed. Lipid biosynthetic genes (LPP1, SLC1) were upregulated and lipid hydrolytic gene (TGL3) was downregulated. We observed that rad50Δ, mre11Δ, xrs2Δ and mrxΔ strains have high number of lipid droplets (LDs) with fragmented mitochondria. These mutants have a short chronological life span compared to wild type. Aged wild-type cells also accumulated TAG with LDs of ∼2.0 μm in diameter. These results suggest that TAG accumulation and big size LDs could be possible markers for premature or normal aging.

The Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 complex is required for yeast DNA postreplication repair

Yeast DNA postreplication repair (PRR) bypasses replication-blocking lesions to prevent damage-induced cell death. PRR employs two different mechanisms to bypass damaged DNA, namely translesion synthesis (TLS) and error-free PRR, which are regulated via sequential ubiquitination of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). We previously demonstrated that error-free PRR utilizes homologous recombination to facilitate template switching. To our surprise, genes encoding the Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 (MRX) complex, which are also required for homologous recombination, are epistatic to TLS mutations. Further genetic analyses indicated that two other nucleases involved in double-strand end resection, Sae2 and Exo1, are also variably required for efficient lesion bypass. The involvement of the above genes in TLS and/or error-free PRR could be distinguished by the mutagenesis assay and their differential effects on PCNA ubiquitination. Consistent with the observation that the MRX complex is required for both branches of PRR, the MRX complex was found to physically interact with Rad18 in vivo. In light of the distinct and overlapping activities of the above nucleases in the resection of double-strand breaks, we propose that the interplay between distinct single-strand nucleases dictate the preference between TLS and error-free PRR for lesion bypass.

Artemis is required to improve the accuracy of repair of double-strand breaks with 5'-blocked termini generated from non-DSB-clustered lesions

Clustered DNA lesions are defined as ≥2 damage events within 20 bp. Oxidised bases, abasic (AP) sites, single-strand breaks and double-strand breaks (DSBs) exist in radiation-induced clusters, and these lesions are more difficult to repair and can be more mutagenic than single lesions. Understanding clustered lesion repair is therefore important for the design of complementary treatments to enhance radiotherapy. Non-DSB-clustered lesions consisting of opposing AP sites can be converted to DSBs by base excision repair, and non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) plays a role in repairing these DSBs. Artemis is an endonuclease that removes blocking groups from DSB termini during NHEJ. Hence, we hypothesised that Artemis plays a role in the processing of DSBs or complex DSBs generated from non-DSB-clustered lesions. We examined the repair of clusters containing two or three lesions in wild-type (WT) or Artemis-deficient (ART(-/-)) mouse fibroblasts using a reporter plasmid. Each cluster contained two opposing tetrahydrofurans (an AP site analogue), which AP endonuclease can convert to a DSB with blocked 5' termini. Loss of Artemis did not decrease plasmid survival, but did result in more mutagenic repair with plasmids containing larger deletions. This increase in deletions did not occur with ClaI-linearised plasmid. Since Mre11 has been implicated in deletional NHEJ, we used small interfering RNA to reduce Mre11 in WT and ART(-/-) cells, but decreasing Mre11 did not change the size of deletions in the repair products. This work implicates Artemis in limiting the deletions introduced during repair of 5'-blocked termini DSBs generated from non-DSB-clustered lesions. Decreasing repair accuracy without decreasing repair capacity could result in mutated cells surviving irradiation. Inhibiting Artemis in normal cells could promote carcinogenesis, while in tumour cells enhanced mutagenic repair following irradiation could promote tumour recurrence.

Fungicidal drugs induce a common oxidative-damage cellular death pathway

Amphotericin, miconazole, and ciclopirox are antifungal agents from three different drug classes that can effectively kill planktonic yeast, yet their complete fungicidal mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, we employ a systems biology approach to identify a common oxidative-damage cellular death pathway triggered by these representative fungicides in Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This mechanism utilizes a signaling cascade involving the GTPases Ras1 and Ras2 and protein kinase A, and it culminates in death through the production of toxic reactive oxygen species in a tricarboxylic-acid-cycle- and respiratory-chain-dependent manner. We also show that the metabolome of C. albicans is altered by antifungal drug treatment, exhibiting a shift from fermentation to respiration, a jump in the AMP/ATP ratio, and elevated production of sugars; this coincides with elevated mitochondrial activity. Lastly, we demonstrate that DNA damage plays a critical role in antifungal-induced cellular death and that blocking DNA-repair mechanisms potentiates fungicidal activity.

In vitro monitoring of base excision repair in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Base excision repair (BER) is an important mechanism to maintain genomic stability. Here we offer a set of protocols to quantitatively analyze BER capacity in whole cell-free yeast extracts. Cell-free yeast extracts were obtained by a French press procedure and repair capacities were measured by using oligonucleotide substrates. Repair products were separated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and detected by autoradiography. These set of methods allow the analysis of different kinds of base damage and of individual mechanistic steps within BER. We used these protocols to investigate a new role of the DNA double strand break repair protein XRS1 in BER (1).

The generation of oxidative stress-induced rearrangements in Saccharomyces cerevisiae mtDNA is dependent on the Nuc1 (EndoG/ExoG) nuclease and is enhanced by inactivation of the MRX complex

Oxidative stress is known to enhance the frequency of two major types of alterations in the mitochondrial genome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae: point mutations and large deletions resulting in the generation of respiration-deficient petite rhō mutants. We investigated the effect of antimycin A, a well-known agent inducing oxidative stress, on the stability of mtDNA. We show that antimycin enhances exclusively the generation of respiration-deficient petite mutants and this is accompanied by a significant increase in the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and in a marked drop of cellular ATP. Whole mitochondrial genome sequencing revealed that mtDNAs of antimycin-induced petite mutants are deleted for most of the wild-type sequence and usually contain one of the active origins of mtDNA replication: ori1, ori2 ori3 or ori5. We show that the frequency of antimycin-induced rhō mutants is significantly elevated in mutants deleted either for the RAD50 or XRS2 gene, both encoding the components of the MRX complex, which is known to be involved in the repair of double strand breaks (DSBs) in DNA. Furthermore, enhanced frequency of rhō mutants in cultures of antimycin-treated cells lacking Rad50 was further increased by the simultaneous absence of the Ogg1 glycosylase, an important enzyme functioning in mtBER. We demonstrate also that rad50Δ and xrs2Δ deletion mutants display a considerable reduction in the frequency of allelic mitochondrial recombination, suggesting that it is the deficiency in homologous recombination which is responsible for enhanced rearrangements of mtDNA in antimycin-treated cells of these mutants. Finally, we show that the generation of large-scale mtDNA deletions induced by antimycin is markedly decreased in a nuc1Δ mutant lacking the activity of the Nuc1 nuclease, an ortholog of the mammalian mitochondrial nucleases EndoG and ExoG. This result indicates that the nuclease plays an important role in processing of oxidative stress-induced lesions in the mitochondrial genome.

Mre11 is expressed in mammalian mitochondria where it binds to mitochondrial DNA

Mre11 is a critical participant in upkeep of nuclear DNA, its repair, replication, meiosis, and maintenance of telomeres. The upkeep of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is less well characterized, and whether Mre11 participates has been unknown. We previously found that high NaCl causes some of the Mre11 to leave the nucleus, but we did not then attempt to localize it within the cytoplasm. In the present studies, we find Mre11 in mitochondria isolated from primary renal cells and show that the amount of Mre11 in mitochondria increases with elevation of extracellular NaCl. We confirm the presence of Mre11 in the mitochondria of cells by confocal microscopy and show that some of the Mre11 colocalizes with mtDNA. Furthermore, crosslinking of Mre11 to DNA followed by Mre11 immunoprecipitation directly demonstrates that some Mre11 binds to mtDNA. Abundant Mre11 is also present in tissue sections from normal mouse kidneys, colocalized with mitochondria of proximal tubule and thick ascending limb cells. To explore whether distribution of Mre11 changes with cell differentiation, we used an experimental model of tubule formation by culturing primary kidney cells in Matrigel matrix. In nondifferentiated cells, Mre11 is mostly in the nucleus, but it becomes mostly cytoplasmic upon cell differentiation. We conclude that Mre11 is present in mitochondria where it binds to mtDNA and that the amount in mitochondria varies depending on cellular stress and differentiation. Our results suggest a role for Mre11 in the maintenance of genome integrity in mitochondria in addition to its previously known role in maintenance of nuclear DNA.